■/ 


'.\  V V 


< 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/materialsforpermOOtoch_0 


Materials  for 


City  1.!  :•  f ' • 
past  Preside’'-  •'  - 
Past  ChaimiHi 

Director  ot  ' ' .iroth' 

AiitV.or  I,.;  .'ic  . ' , . 

Fellow  of  the  ’ 


"Jttn 't)Wt5d<vu(  .Sioo'ti  ito  n i'niKD'S  <v<«D 

.inDt)'; 

CtoiUyii  Slit  R)  iioixit-moci  siil  sti 

Ij  » '1  ■ ■ * I 


Perm  AxS  ekt 


MANUFACTURL:  „ . .. 

AVD  • ■ : i 


Bj  Mfj 


Mer-’bii  Aio’-i,-. 
Municipal  Lc..!’:-’'-  . 


Gesso  Tempera  Painting  on  wood,  probable  age  600 
years. 

(Painting  in  the  possession  of  the  author.) 


Materials  for 
Permanent  Painting 


A MANUAL  FOR 

MANUFACTURERS,  ART  DEALERS,  ARTISTS 
AND  COLLECTORS 


By  Maximilian  Toch 

Member  American  Institute  Chemical  Engineers 
Municipal  Lecturer  on  Paints,  Colors,  Etc.,  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York 
Past  President  of  the  Chemists’  Club 
Past  Chairman  Society  Chemical  Industry  N.  Y.  Section 
Director  of  Chemical  Laboratory  of  Toch  Brothers 
Author  of  the  Chemistry  of  Mixed  Paints,  Etc. 

Fellow  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London 

C.ONS  , 

Ni 


i^n 


Etc.,  Etc. 


NEW  YORK 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 
19  11 


Copyright  1911 

BY 

D.  Van  Nostrand  Company 


The  Eddy  Press  Corporation 
Cumberland,  Md. 


Contents 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Preface. 

Chapter 

I, 

History  of  Painting. 

Chapter 

II, 

Pigments  used  by  the  Ancients. 

Chapter 

III, 

Sinopia,  the  Search  for  the  Mas- 

Chapter 

IV, 

ters’  secret. 

Photo-Chemical  Deterioration  of 

Chapter 

V, 

Oil  Paintings. 

Cause  of  the  Cracking  of  Paintings 

Chapter 

VI, 

and  the  Remedies. 

Canvas,  Wood  and  Metal  as  Foun- 

Chapter 

VII, 

dations. 

Preparation  of  Canvas  in  Commer- 

Chapter 

VIII, 

cial  Practice. 

Renovation  and  Cleaning  of  Pic- 

Chapter 

IX, 

tures. 

The  School  of  Impressionism. 

Chapter 

X, 

Volatile  Solvents. 

Chapter 

XI, 

Picture  Varnishes. 

Chapter 

XII, 

Driers. 

Chapter 

XIII, 

Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Drying  Oils. 

Chapter 

XIV, 

Classification  of  the  Pigments  and 

Chapter 

XV, 

their  Description. 
The  Permanent  Colors. 

Chapter 

XVI, 

Pigments  Dangerous  to  Health. 

Chapter 

XVII, 

Pigments  afifected  by  Coal  Smoke, 

Chapter 

XVIII, 

etc. 

Water  in  Tube  Colors. 

Chapter 

XIX, 

Pigments  which  are  Permanent, 

Chapter 

XX, 

etc. 

Pigments  which  Dry  Slowly. 

Chapter 

XXI, 

The  failure  of  Sir  J.  Reynold’s 

Paintings. 


Permanent  Painting 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Gesso  Tempera  Painting  on  Wood Frontispiece 

Photo-Micrograph  of  a Section  of  an  Oil  Paint- 
ing Showing  Cracks 40 


The  Engineering  Features  of  a Painting  at  Rest.  . 42 

Photo-Micrograph  of  Cracks  in  a Painting,  and 
Dirt  and  Dust  Encysted  in  the  Varnish 45 

Painting  on  Mahogany  Panel  Showing  Serious 
Cracks  Produced  by  Varnishing  the  Picture  Be- 
fore the  Imderlying  Coat  was  Sufficiently  Dry.  . 48 

Photo-Micrograph  of  Cracks  Invisible  to  the  Naked 
Eye  Showing  Encysted  Matter  and  Fissures...  63 

Photograph  of  an  Oil  Painting  Showing  Serious 
Cracking  Throughout,  Due  to  the  Contraction  of 


the  Paint  80 

High-power  Photo-micrograph  of  Flake  White 
which  Contains  too  much  Water  in  its  Composi- 
tion   185 


Preface 


PREFACE 

IN  the  course  of  my  acquaintance  with  artistic 
painters,  I was  astonished  to  find  the  enormous 
amount  of  ignorance  that  exists  among  them  as 
to  the  composition  of  the  materials  which  they  use 
and  the  science  of  painting.  Almost  every  painter  of 
note  will  tell  you  what  a great  pity  it  is  that  the 
science  of  making  colors  is  lost,  and  that  the  ancient 
painters  and  great  masters  were  so  successful  primar- 
ily because  their  pigments  and  materials  were  far  su- 
perior to  those  which  we  can  obtain  to-day.  This 
statement  is  so  diametrically  opposed  to  the  facts 
that  I have  been  prompted  to  make  a study  of  paint 
pigments  in  order  to  throw  some  light  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  demonstrate  to  the  painter  that  the  colors 
of  to-day  are  far  superior  to  the  colors  used  by  the 
ancients,  and  show  that  the  principal  fault  lies  with 
the  manufacturer,  who  makes  fugitive  colors,  for  the 
use  of  which  there  is  no  scientific  nor  commercial  rea- 
son. Almost  any  large  dealer  in  artists’  colors  has 
upwards  of  200  pigments  on  sale.  In  the  first  place, 
no  palette  could  hold  any  such  quantity,  and  in  the 
second  place,  there  are  possibly  only  10  or  15  sufficient- 
ly permanent  pigments  to  warrant  their  use. 

The  correct,  complete  and  most  edifying  book  on 


[5] 


Preface 


this  subject  has  never  been  written,  nor  is  my  efifort 
of  much  value,  excepting  perhaps  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  chemist.  Some  day  there  will  be  born 
a man,  who  will  be  both  a color  chemist  and  a painter, 
and  that  man  will  write  the  ideal  book  on  the  subject. 
The  popular  impression  is  that  all  chemists  must  have 
a comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  pig- 
ments, but  this  is  not  true,  as  there  are  very  few  chem- 
ists who  know  anything  about  the  technology  of 
paints,  because  it  is  a specialty  which  very  few  have 
worked  up,  and  no  matter  how  proficient  a chemist 
may  be,  if  he  is  not  an  artistic  painter,  he  cannot 
advise  how  a sky  should  be  painted,  or  what  particular 
greens  to  use  for  foliage  and  shadows.  The  technique 
of  the  fine  arts  is  a subject  by  itself,  and  while  I may 
be  supposed  to  have  some  knowledge  on  this  sub- 
ject, I frankly  admit  my  inability  to  paint,  but  in- 
asmuch as  I feel  very  certain  of  one  part  of  my  sub- 
ject, that  is  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of 
the  pigments,  I do  not  hesitate  to  recommend  in  plain 
language  exactly  what  the  painter  shall  do  with  refer- 
ence to  his  colors,  and  the  materials  upon  which  he 
paints. 

Furthermore,  I was  very  much  astonished  to  find 
that  in  the  art  schools  of  the  various  countries  no  at- 
tention whatever  is  paid  to  the  chemistry  of  colors. 
A painter  should  be  aware  that  certain  pigments  are 
affected  by  the  fumes  arising  from  vegetables  in  a 
dining  room,  and  that  these  fumes  form  chemical  com- 


[6] 


Preface 


pounds  with  certain  pigments,  and  a painter  should 
likewise  know  that  the  atmosphere  of  large  cities  is 
contaminated  with  acid  gases  which  are  absent  in 
smaller  places,  and  which  did  not  exist  before  the  age 
of  the  burning  of  coal  as  fuel. 

I trust,  therefore,  that  my  work  will  be  taken  serious- 
ly, and  that  the  poorer  painter  will  recognize  that  he 
need  not  use  expensive  colors  to  produce  permanent 
results.  I am  glad  that  I am  not  actuated  by  any  com- 
mercial motive  in  writing  this  book,  for,  although  I 
have  been  a color  manufacturer  for  many  years,  I have 
never  made,  nor  have  I the  intention  of  making  tube 
colors  for  artists’  use,  but  I have  made  quantities  of 
finely  ground  colors  for  many  of  my  friends,  who  are 
painters,  and  have  demonstrated  to  them  that  some- 
times the  ordinary  paints  ground  in  oil,  such  as  are 
used  by  house  decorators,  are  sufficiently  good  for 
many  purposes,  and  in  many  instances  produce  the 
same  results  as  the  more  expensive  colors  filled  in 
tubes.  I have  tried  to  write  as  fully  as  I know  and 
give  as  plainly  as  I could  the  description  relating  to 
the  more  expensive  colors,  condemning  those  which 
should  be  condemned,  and  recommending  others  as 
long  as  there  is  nothing  superior  to  be  had. 

It  may  interest  the  reader  to  know  why  I take  such 
a positive  stand  with  reference  to  the  fading,  drying 
and  other  physical  characteristics  of  colors,  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  investigators  vacillate 
continually. 


[7] 


Pref  ace 


In  1886,  while  I was  still  a chemical  student,  I 
made  my  first  investigation  of  tube  colors,  and  from 
that  day  to  this  I have  been  interested  in  the  subject 
of  the  manufacture  of  paints  and  pigments  as  a vo- 
cation, and  have  always  been  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject of  the  application  of  artistic  pigments  as  an  avo- 
cation. Drying  tests  can,  of  course,  be  conducted  in 
a few  weeks,  but  extensive  tests  take  years,  and  al- 
though it  is  reasonable  to  determine  the  permanency 
of  a color  by  exposure  to  the  bright  sunshine  for 
three  months,  I have  made  experiments  along  these 
lines  which  have  involved  exposure  for  over  five  years. 

When  pigments  are  mixed  with  an  aqueous  medium 
containing  a little  gum,  and  the  resulting  picture  is 
hermetically  sealed,  no  decomposition  takes  place,  be- 
cause the  majority  of  chemical  reactions  cease  in  the 
absence  of  moisture,  but  linseed  oil  or  varnish  medium 
will  generate  moisture  and  certain  gases,  producing  a 
slow  decomposition,  so  that  it  often  takes  years  to 
make  a determination  of  which  a description  can  be 
written  in  a few  minutes. 

It  is  a great  pleasure  for  me  to  acknowledge  the 
assistance  I received  from  Dr.  George  F.  Kunz,  who 
gave  me  a fairly  complete  collection  of  semi-precious 
minerals,  all  of  which  represented  the  pigments  used 
by  the  ancients  and  with  which  I conducted  many  of 
my  experiments. 


[8] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  HISTORY  OF  PAINTING 

The  decorative  art  of  using  colors  is  probably  as 
old  as  man.  We  have  the  instinctive  efifort  of 
the  barbarian,  who  bedecked  his  body  with  col- 
ored earths,  and  we  have  the  frescoes  and  wall  decora- 
tions and  the  painting  of  the  columns  in  the  temples 
of  Luxor  and  Karnak,  as  evidence  of  the  use  of  pig- 
ments for  decorative  purposes.  There  seems  to  be 
little  doubt  that  from  the  earliest  day  of  decorative 
painting  down  to  the  fourteenth  century,  the  media 
used  consisted  of  some  albuminous  or  gelatinous  com- 
pound mixed  with  water.  The  white  of  egg  or  the 
entire  egg  mixed  with  lime  was  evidently  the  prin- 
cipal medium  used  to  fasten  colors,  although  many 
other  substances  were  used,  such  as  the  liquid  ob- 
tained by  boiling  parchment  and  the  skins  of  animals 
in  water,  which  is  practically  the  same  thing  as  using 
glue. 

In  the  method  of  painting  with  the  white  of  egg 
which  has  always  been  known  as  tempera,  the  paint 
was  generally  applied  to  a ground  of  gesso,  which  is 
the  Italian  word  for  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris,  and 
the  pigments  which  were  used,  and  the  methods  of 


[9] 


Permanent  Painting 


preparation  of  the  wood  foundations  for  painting 
were  so  perfect  that  absolutely  no  decomposition  takes 
place  in  gesso  tempera  painting,  for  we  have  brilliant 
examples  that  are  over  600  years  old  practically  in 
their  pristine  condition.  Pliny  mentions  the  use  of 
milk  as  a medium,  and  while  it  is  doubtful  whether 
we  have  any  authentic  samples  of  early  paintings  with 
milk,  we  have  the  custom  still  in  vogue,  for  there  are 
thousands  of  tons  of  kalsomine  or  water  colors  made 
at  the  present  day  in  which  the  binding  material  is 
casein,  which  is  the  gluey  substance  that  is  contained 
in  milk.  In  addition  to  these  media  the  early  monks 
used  almost  every  conceivable  substance  of  a sticky 
nature,  such  as  wax,  honey,  wine  boiled  until  it  is 
slightly  thickened  (glucose  or  sugar),  the  juice  of 
various  plants,  and  from  the  eighth  century  on  we 
begin  to  have  evidence  of  the  use  of  drying  oils  in  the 
form  of  some  nut  oil  (more  than  likely  linseed  oil 
mixed  with  a varnish),  for  in  Italy  before  the  days 
of  oil,  we  have,  according  to  Cennini,  the  mention  of 
vernice,  from  which  evidently  our  word  “varnish” 
has  been  etymologically  derived. 

Oils  were  known  to  the  ancients  as  an  article  of 
food  and  as  a material  for  anointing  the  body,  suffi- 
cient evidence  for  this  being  found  in  the  Bible,  and 
as  many  priests  busied  themselves  with  painting  and 
used  the  materials  at  hand,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
many  of  them  used  cooking  oils  such  as  olive,  flax 
and  nut  oil  in  many  of  their  works.  Eastlake,  in  his 


Permanent  Painting 


most  valuable  book,*  makes  the  statement  that  Aetius, 
a medical  writer  of  the  fifth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century,  mentions  at  great  length,  a drying  oil 
in  connection  with  works  of  art,  and  it  was  this  early 
writer  who  described  at  full  length  what  we  probably 
recognize  as  “linseed  oil,”  and  after  mentioning  this, 
he  makes  the  statement,  “walnut  oil  is  prepared  like 
that  of  almonds,  either  by  pounding  or  pressing  the 
nuts,  or  by  throwing  them  into  boiling  water  after 
they  have  been  bruised.  It  has  a use  besides  a medi- 
cinal use,  being  applied  by  gilders  or  encaustic  painters, 
for  it  dries,  and  preserves  gildings  and  encaustic 
paints  for  a long  time.” 

The  popular  statement  that  the  brothers  Hubert  and 
Jan  Van  Eyck  were  the  first  to  paint  permanent 
pictures  in  oil,  is  only  true  in  so  far  that  both  of  these 
men  evidently  investigated  all  the  work  that  had  been 
previously  done,  as  the  Italian  historian,  Facius,  speaks 
of  Van  Eyck  as  having  consulted  the  previous  author- 
ities with  much  profit,  t Facius,  whose  full  name  was 
Bartolommeo  Facio,  appears  to  have  first  published 
his  work  in  1456,  but  we  have  ample  evidence  as  far 
back  as  Henry  HI,  in  1239,  showing  that  oil  painting 
was  practiced  in  England  as  a trade.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  work  by  Sir  Charles  Eastlake  is  to  be 
found  in  few  libraries,  and  that  his  celebrated  book  is 
therefore  not  easily  accessible,  I quote  from  his  in- 


* Materials  for  a History  of  Oil  Painting, 
t Eastlake’s  Material  for  the  History  of  Oil  Painting,  p.  25. 


Permanent  Painting 


vestigations  as  follows:  “In  1239  (23d  of  Henry 
III)  oil  is  mentioned  in  connexion  with  painting.  Sim- 
ilar notices  appear  in  numerous  account-rolls  belong- 
ing to  the  reign  of  Edward  I,  viz.,  from  1274  to  1295; 
and  in  others  dated  1307,  the  ist  of  Edward  II.” 
Another  series  exists  in  the  records  of  Ely  Cathedral, 
the  dates  extending  from  1325  to  1351.  A great 
number  of  the  same  kind  are  preserved  in  accounts 
belonging  to  the  reign  of  Edward  III,  and  relating 
to  the  decoration  of  St.  Stephen’s  Chapel,  from  1352 
to  1358.  Partial  translations  (unfortunately  without 
the  original  text)  of  some  of  the  last-mentioned 
records  have  been  published  in  “Smith’s  Antiquities 
of  Westminster.”*  The  extracts  made  by  that  writer 
relate  to  glass-painting,  architecture,  and  decorations 
generally.  Of  certain  weekly  accounts  (belonging  to 
the  reign  of  Edward  I),  amounting  originally  to  one 
hundred  and  forty-two  in  number,  he  states  that  he 
had  found  eleven  only,  t In  the  course  of  a recent 
investigation  forty-four  have  been  discovered.  How- 
ever interesting  in  other  points  of  view,  these  numer- 
ous documents  throw  but  little  light  on  the  practice 
of  oil  painting.  The  same  materials  constantly  re- 
appear, but  there  is  no  direct  allusion  to  their  use, 
except  as  regards  the  process  of  varnishing.  Such 
passages  as  the  following  refer  to  the  commonest 
operations  of  this  kind:  “To  the  same  (Stephen  Le 


* London.  1837. 


t Ib.,  p.  76. 


Permanent  Painting 


Joigneur)  for  varnishing  two  coffers,  8d.”  ;*  and  else, 
“To  Richard  de  Assheby  for  preparing  with  white, 
covering  with  ochre,  and  varnishing  the  King’s  Cham- 
ber, according  to  contract.  32  shillings.”  t A few 
specimens  of  the  mandates  and  accounts  above  ad- 
verted to,  beginning  with  those  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, will  therefore  suffice.  The  first  in  order  of  time 
is  familiar  to  many,  having  been  originally  published 
by  Walpole. 

1239.  “The  King  to  his  treasurer  and  chamber- 
lains. Pay  from  our  treasury  to  Odo  the  goldsmith 
and  Edward  his  son  one  hundred  and  seventeen  shil- 
lings and  ten-pence  for  oil,  varnish,  and  colours  bought, 
and  for  pictures  executed  in  the  Queen’s  Chamber 
at  Westminster,  from  the  octaves  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
(May  25th)  in  the  23rd  year  of  our  reign,  to  the 
feast  of  St.  Barnabas  (June  nth)  in  the  same  year, 
namely,  for  fifteen  days.”  t 

It  is  here  necessary  to  remark,  in  anticipation  of 
the  inquiry  respecting  varnishes,  that  the  word  vermx 
or  vernisium,  in  the  earlier  notices  of  painting,  does 
not  mean  a fluid  composition,  but  dry  sandarac  resin, 
which,  when  melted  and  boiled  with  oil,  formed  a 

* "‘Eidem  (Stephanno  le  Joignur)  pro  vernicione  ii.  coffro  rum  Viii. 
d/’ 

t **Richardo  de  Assheby  pro  bealbacions  ocriacione  et  ver  nacione 
camere  Regis  ad  tascham  xxxii.  s.” 

t “Rex  thesauriario  et  camerariis  suis  salutem.  Liberate  de  thesauro 
nostro  Odoni  aurifabro  et  Edwardo  filio  suo  centum  et  septemdecem 
solidos  et  decern  denarios  pro  oleo,  vernici,  et  coloribus  emptis,  et 
picturis  factis  in  camera  reginae  nostrae  apud  Westm.  ab  octavis  Sane- 
tae  Trinitatis  anno  regni  nostri  xxiii.  usque  ad  festum  Sancti  Barnabe 
apostoli,  eodem  anno,  scilicet  per  xv,  dies.** 


[13] 


Permanent  Painting 


varnish,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  The  proofs 
of  this  will  be  given  hereafter.  It  may  be  sufficient 
here  to  observe,  that,  in  the  English  accounts,  the 
quantity  of  varnish  is  always  noted  by  weight,  and  that 
of  oil  by  measure.  The  above  passage  should  be 
translated  “for  oil,  sandarac  resin,  and  colours.”  It 
will  be  seen,  that  the  order  relates  to  the  work  of 
fifteen  days  only ; but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  oil 
varnish  was  used  upon  pictures,  or  operations  in  paint- 
ing, then  executed.  In  the  portion  of  time  specified 
some  works  may  have  been  varnished  and  others  pre- 
pared for  it.  The  date  of  this  mandate  is  a year  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Cimabue. 

In  1259,  Master  William,  the  painter,  with  his  as- 
sistants, received  forty-three  shillings  and  ten-pence  for 
painting  a Jesse  (no  doubt  the  usual  genealogical  tree 
of  Christ)  on  the  mantel-piece  of  the  King’s  Chamber 
(The  Painted  Chamber),  and  “for  renovating  and 
washing  the  paintings  on  the  walls  of  the  said  cham- 
ber.” * 

This  supposes  that  these  celebrated  works,  consisting 
chiefly  of  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament  and  from 
the  Apocrypha,  were  varnished.  Size  paintings,  with- 
out such  a protection,  would  hardly  have  been  proof 
against  this  “ablution.”  The  tempera,  composed  chief- 
ly of  yolk  of  egg,  is  firmer  than  size,  and  becomes 
very  solid  in  time ; but  the  colored  remains  of  the 

* “Magistro  Willelmo  Pictori  cum  hominibus  suis  circa  Jesse  in 
Mantell,  camini  Regis  depingendum  et  circa  picturam  parietum  ipsius 
camere  Regis  innovandam  et  abluendam,  xliii.  s.  x.  d.” 


[14] 


Permanent  Painting 


Painted  Chamber  (the  varnish  probably  having  be- 
come decomposed  from  damp  during  the  lapse  of 
ages)  easily  yielded  to  the  sponge  when  they  were 
examined  in  1819.  * 

In  the  period  from  1274  to  1277  (3rd  to  5th  of 
Edward  I),  an  account,  apparently  relating  to  the 
Painted  Chamber,  contains  the  following  items ; “To 
Reymund,  for  seventeen  fb.  of  white  lead,  ii.  s.  x.  d. 
To  the  same,  for  sixteen  gallons  (?)  of  oil,  xvi.  s.  To 
the  same,  for  twenty-four  lb.  of  varnish,  xii.  s.  To 
Hugo  le  Vespunt,  for  eighteen  gallons  of  oil,  xxxi.  s.,'' 
etc.  t Again;  “To  Reymund,  for  a hundred  (Leaves) 
of  gold,  hi.  s.  To  the  same,  for  twenty-two  lb.  of 
varnish,  xi.  s.  i.  d.”  t Elsewhere:  “To  Robert  King, 
for  one  cartload  of  cliarcoal  for  drying  the  painting  in 
the  King’s  Chamber,  iii.  s.  viii.  d.“  § 

The  last  entry  appears  to  relate  to  the  drying  of 
surfaces  painted  in  oil,  but  the  precaution  may  also 
have  been  necessary  before  varnishing  tempera.  The 
application  of  heat,  even  before  painting  in  oil,  ac- 
cording to  the  directions  of  Eraclius,  will  here  be  re- 
membered : “Ad  solem  vel  ad  ignem  siccare  permittes.’’ 
It  can  hardly  escape  observation,  that  the  practice  of 
oil  painting  taught  by  Eraclius  agrees  in  many  details 

* See  Gage  Rokewode’s  Account  of  the  Painted  Chamber,  1842,  p.  15. 
t “Reymundo  pro  xviii.  ii.  albi  plumbi  ii.  s.  x.  d.  Eidem  pro  xvi. 
gal.  olei  xvi.  s.  Eidem  i>ro  xxiiii.  li.  verniz  xll.  s.  Hugoni  le  Ves- 
punt pro  xviii.  gal.  olei  xxi.  s.” 

t “Reymundo  pro  C.  auri  iii.  s.  Eidem  pro  xxii.  li.  verniz  xi.  s.  i.  d.” 
§ “Roberto  King  pro  i.  carecta  carbonis  ad  picturam  in  Camera  Regis 
desiccandam  iii.  s.  viii.  d.” 


[IS] 


Permanent  Painting 


with  that  exemplified  in  the  English  records ; and  the 
circumstance  may  warrant  a supposition  that  he  com- 
posed his  treatise  in  this  country.  1289  (17th  of  Ed- 
ward I).  The  following  materials  are  enumerated  in 
an  account  relating  to  repairs  in  the  Painted  Cham- 
ber: “white  lead,  varnish,  green,  oil,  red  lead,  tin-foil, 
size,  gold  leaf,  silver  leaf,  red  ochre,  vermilion,  indigo, 
azure,  earthen  vessels,  cloth,  etc.”  * 

In  1292,  oil  and  varnish  are  twice  mentioned  in  a 
similar  account,  t In  1307,  in  consequence  of  a fire 
(which  occurred  in  1298),  repairs  were  again  under- 
taken, and  similar  materials  were  used. 

The  records  of  Ely  are  more  conclusive  as  to  the 
mixture  of  oil  with  the  colors ; and,  as  the  materials 
are  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  above  extracts,  it  may 
be  inferred  that  oil  painting  of  some  kind  was  employed 
at  Westminster.  Of  this,  indeed,  there  are  other 
proofs. 

1325.  Among  the  items  of  an  account,  three 
flagons  and  a half  of  oil  are  mentioned  “for  painting 


* “In  albo  plumbo,  vernicio,  viridi,  oleo,  plumbo  rubeo,  stangno 
albo,  cole  (Fr.  colle),  auro,  argento,  sinople,  vermilone,  ynde,  asura, 
ollis,  panno  et  alHs  minutis  emptis  ad  viridandam  novam  Camereram 
de  petra  et  ad  emendaciones  picture  mangne  Camere  Regis  sicut  patet 
per  particulas.  Summa  xii.  li.  vl.  s.  vi.  d.  ob.’’  This  extract  is  given  in  the 
work  last  quoted,  but  with  some  inaccuracies;  for  example,  ranno 
for  panno,  and  in  the  heading,  verniorum  for  verinorum.  There  is 
no  punctuation  in  the  original  account-rolls,  but  vernicio  viridi  should 
not  have  been  connected.  It  would  be  unjust  to  point  out  these 
trifling  oversights  in  an  important  and  interesting  work,  without,  at 
the  same  time,  paying  a tribute  of  respect  to  the  memory  of  one  who 
so  often  distinguished  himself  as  an  accurate  and  intelligent  inves- 
tigator. 

t Item  in  iii.  quarteronis  olei  empti.  Summa  ix.  d.  In  I.  lb.  vernicio 
(sic)  empt.  Summa  iiii.  d.  In  ocra,  piastre,  filo  et  pelli  emptis,”  etc. 


[16] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  figures  upon  the  columns.”*  The  term  “ymagines,” 
in  these  and  other  English  records  of  the  time,  is  used 
indiscriminately  for  painted  figures  and  for  statues.  In 
the  treatise  of  St.  Audemar  the  latter  are  distinguished 
as  “ymagines  rotunde.”  There  can  be  little  doubt  that, 
in  the  above  passage,  painted  figures  were  meant ; 
and,  in  any  case,  oil  colors  were  used. 

In  1336,  in  a similar  account,  oil  appears  in  abund- 
ance, forty-eight  flagons  altogether ; and  this  may  ex- 
plain its  absence  in  other  entries,  where  colors  and 
other  materials  are  mentioned  without  oil.  It  should 
also  be  observed  that,  if,  in  mutilated  documents,  “var- 
nish” appears  alone,  it  may  always  be  inferred  that 
the  oil  (without  which  the  vernix,  or  sandarac,  was 
of  no  use)  was  originally  included  in  the  list  of  ma- 
terials. In  the  last  mentioned  account  columns  were 
to  be  painted,  t 

In  1339  and  1341  oil  again  appears;  in  the  account 
of  the  former  date  “for  tempering  the  colours.”  t 

In  1351  oil  is  mentioned  “for  making  the  painting 
in  the  chapel.”  § In  all  these  documents,  when  varnish 

* “In  iii.  lagenis  et  dimid.  olei  pro  ymaginibus  super  columnas  de* 
pingend.  iii.  s.  vi.  d.” 

XX 

t “Item  in  vii.  iv.  albi  plumbi  emp.  de  eodem  xii.  s.  prec.  i.  d.  In 
xiii.  lagenis  olei  wmpt.  de  Thoma  d’Elm  x.  s.  iii.  d.  ob.  prec.  lagen. 
X.  d.  oU  In  vi.  lagenis  olei  empt.  de  Thoma  de  Chayk  iv.  s.  xi.  d.  prec. 
lagen.  x.  d.  In  xxviii.  lagenis  et  dimid.  olei  empt.  de  Nich.  de  Wickam 
xxvi.  s.  i.  d.  ob.  prec.  lagen.  xi.  d.  In  dimid.  lagen.  olei  empt.  v/d.  In 
vas  terren,  pro  oleo  imponendo  iv.  d.  quad.  In  i.  longa  corda  empt. 
pro  le  chapital  deaurand.  et  column,  depingend.  viii.  d.,’^  etc. 

t “In  xxxi.  lagenis  et  dimid.  olei  empt.  de  quodam  nomine  de  Wick- 
ham pro  coloribus  temperandis  xxl.  s.  prec.  lagen.  viii.  d.,“  etc, 

§ “In  oleo  empt.  pro  pictura  facienda  in  capella  x.  s.,“  etc.  The 
above  extracts  relating  to  Ely  Cathedral  will  be  found  in  the 
Archaeologia,  vol.  ix. 


[17] 


Permanent  Painting 


is  included  in  the  items,  the  quantity,  as  usual,  is  noted 
in  weight. 

The  last  accounts  in  the  general  list  before  given 
(1352-1358)  relate  to  St.  Stephen’s  Chapel.  They 
are  very  numerous ; but,  as  already  observed,  they 
afford  no  additional  light  respecting  the  particular  ap- 
plications of  oil  painting.  In  other  respects  they  are 
of  great  interest ; and,  like  those  of  the  time  of  Edward 
I,  indicate  a practice  in  art  corresponding  in  almost 
every  particular  with  that  described  by  Cennini. 

The  large  supplies  of  oil  which  appear  in  the  West- 
minster and  Ely  records,  indicate  the  coarseness  of  the 
operations  for  which  oil  was  required.  The  quantity 
supplied  to  Giorgio  d’  Aquila,  at  Pinarolo,  has  ex- 
cited the  surprise  of  Italian  antiquaries ; * but  it  now 
appears  that  contemporary  examples,  quite  as  remark- 
able, are  to  be  found  in  English  documents.  Such  no- 
tices as  the  following  (not  the  only  entries  of  the 
kind)  at  least  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  oil  sometimes  used,  and  the  general  purposes  for 
which  it  was  provided. 

The  extracts  relate  to  St.  Stephen’s  Chapel.  Sept. 
19,  1352,  (25th  of  Edward  III)  : “For  nineteen  flagons 
of  painters’  oil,  bought  for  the  painting  of  the  chapel, 
at  3s.  qd.  the  flagon,  43s.  qd.”  t March  19,  1353: 

* See  a letter  from  the  Padre  Guglielmo  Della  Valle,  in  the  Giornale 
di  pisa,  1794.  He  endeavors  to  show,  notwithstanding  the  plain  ex* 

Eression,  “non  erat  sufficiens  in  pingendo,”  that  the  oil  may  have 
een  used  for  lamps. 

t “Die  Lune  xix.  Septembris.  In  xix.  lagenis  olei  pictorum  emptis 
pro  pictura  capelle  precium  lagene  iii.  s.  iiii.  d.  xliii.  s.  iiii.  d.“ 


Permanent  Painting 


“To  Thomas  Drayton,  for  eight  flagons  of  painters’ 
oil,  bought  for  the  painting  of  the  chapel,  at  2s.  6d. 
the  flagon,  20s.”*  May  13,  in  the  same  year:  “To 
John  de  Hennay,  for  seventy  flagons  and  a half  of 
painters’  oil,  bought  for  the  painting  of  the  same 
chapel,  at  2od.  the  flagon,  117s.  6d.”  t Contracting 
with  this  lavish  use  of  oil,  we  find  such  entries  as  the 
following:  “To  Gilbert  Pokerig,  for  two  flagons  of 
size,  bought  for  the  painting  of  the  said  chapel,  2d. 
To  the  same,  for  two  earthen  vessels  for  heating  the 
size,  three  halfpence.”  t 

Eggs,  which  afforded  the  vehicle  for  the  finer  work 
in  tempera,  are  not  mentioned:  this  may,  however, 
be  accounted  for  either  by  the  incompleteness  of  the 
records  of  this  period,  or  by  the  nature  of  the  work, 
as.  the  item  occurs  in  earlier  documents,  hereafter  to 
be  noticed,  belonging  to  the  reign  of  Edward  I (1274). 
It  will  be  observed  that  tlie  price  of  the  oil  used  in 
St.  Stephen’s  Chapel  varies,  and  that  sometimes  it 
is  more  than  three  times  the  price  of  that  employed 
at  Ely  about  the  same  time.  The  expression  “painters 
Oil,”  applied  to  the  former,  may  explain  this.  It  had 
been  probably  purified  and  deprived  of  its  mucilage 
by  exposure  to  the  sun,  in  the  mode  then  generally 

* “Die  Lune  xix.  die  Marcii.  Thome  Drayton  pro  viii.  lagenis  olei 
pictorum  emptis  pro  pictura  capelle  precium  lagene  ii.  s.  vi.  d.  xx.  s.” 

t “Die  Lune  xiii.  die  Maii.  jTohanni  de  Henr.aij  pro  ixx.  lagenis 
et  di.  olei  pictorum  emptis  pro  pictura  ejusdem  capelle  precium  lagene 
XX.  d.  cxvii.  s.  vi.  d.” 

t “Die  Lune  xix.  die  Marcii  (1353).  Gilberto  Pokerig  pro  ii.  lagenis 
de  cole  emptis  pro  pictura  dicte  capelle  ii.  d.  Eidem  pro  ii.  ollis  terreis 
emptis  pro  cole  calefaciendo  i.  d.  ob.” 


[19] 


Permanent  Painting 


practiced  for  the  preparation  of  linseed  oil  which 
was  to  serve  for  better  kinds  of  painting  (on  surfaces 
where  it  was  desirable  to  produce  a gloss),  and  for 
the  composition  of  varnishes.  This  appears  the  more 
likely,  as  the  oil  was  sometimes  purchased  of  the 
(then)  principal  painter,  Hugh  of  St.  Albans.  * 

Cennino  Cennini  gives  the  most  exact  formulas  for 
the  preparation  of  drying  oil  and  varnishes,  including 
prescribed  methods  for  the  grinding  of  colors  in  oil 
for  painting  in  oil  on  iron  and  on  stone,  and  one  of  the 
most  noteworthy  facts  that  we  have  in  conjunction 
with  this  remarkable  Italian  investigator  is,  the  fact, 
that  the  description  of  the  varnish  kettles  for  the  melt- 
ing of  the  gum,  and  the  implements  used  for  stirring 
are  almost  identical  in  shape  with  those  that  are  used 
in  the  present  day,  and  in  his  description  of  the  prepa- 
ration of  drying  oil  which  we  now  popularly  term  “gold 
size,”  is  a slow-drying  linseed  oil  that  remains  “tacky” 
for  several  days,  and  dries  without  shrivelling.  It  is 
also  noteworthy  of  mention  that  our  methods  for 
making  an  oil  size  do  not  differ  to-day  from  the  for- 
mulas prescribed  by  Cennini. 

The  early  Italians  were  better  book-binders  than 
they  were  painters,  and  as  nearly  all  of  their  subjects 
were  of  a religious  nature,  the  madonnas  with  the  gold- 

* “Die  Lune  xxv.  die  Julii  (1352)  Eidem  (Magistro  Hugoni  de 
Sancto  Albano)  pro  xiii.  lagenis  olei  pictorum  emptis  pro  pictura  diste 
capelle  precium  lagene  iii.  s.  iiii.  d.  xliii.  s.  iiii.  d.”  The  same  quantity, 
at  the  same  comparatively  high  price,  is  entered  on  the  19th  of  Septem- 
ber following.  This  extract  has  been  already  given. 


[20] 


Permanent  Painting 


en  background,  the  saints  with  the  golden  halos,  were 
all  so  wonderfully  prepared,  that  to  this  day  we  have 
excellent  examples  of  this  art,  which  is  really  a mix- 
ture of  book-binding  and  painting. 

About  the  year  1400,  the  practice  of  oil  painting 
had  become  thoroughly  established,  due  undoubtedly, 
to  the  research  and  investigation  of  the  Van  Eycks. 
The  examples  of  their  oil  painting  which  are  in  ex- 
istence to  this  day  are  in  a condition  that  is  absolutely 
remarkable.  Even  a superficial  examination  of  one 
of  the  paintings  of  Hubert  Van  Eyck  in  the  National 
Art  Gallery  in  London,  shows  a brilliancy  and  fresh- 
ness that  pays  an  inexpressible  tribute  to  the  wonderful 
care  exercised  by  this  master  and  his  brother. 


[21] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  PIGMENTS  USED  BY  THE  ANCIENTS 

The  permanence  of  the  old  paintings  is  entirely 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  painters  had  very  few 
pigments  to  work  with,  and  practically  all  of 
them  were  native  earths  which  were  in  many  instances 
exceedingly  brilliant.  The  lapis  lazuli  which  is  the 
same  thing  as  our  ultramarine  blue  of  to-day  occurs 
in  nature,  and  varies  in  shade  from  a greenish  sky 
blue  to  a dark  ultramarine.  The  selection  of  various 
shades  of  this  most  permanent  pigment  gave  to  all 
the  painters  who  used  it  a blue  which  has  not  been 
surpassed. 

For  the  yellow  pigments  there  were  ample  yellow 
earths  in  the  form  of  ochre  and  sienna,  which  while 
not  very  brilliant  were  sufficiently  bright  for  all  pur- 
poses. 

The  white  effect  about  the  gesso  paintings  was  pro- 
duced by  whiting  and  gypsum,  and  as  white  lead  was 
known  400  B.  C.,  either  as  an  artificial  product  or  as 
a mineral  known  as  cerusite  which  is  a native  car- 
bonate of  lead,  the  use  of  this  pigment  was  well  known 
and  largely  practiced,  although  its  defects  were  noted 
by  nearly  every  one  of  the  early  writers. 


[22] 


Permanent  Painting 


As  far  as  green  is  concerned,  there  were  several 
varieties  of  minerals  that  furnished  green,  principally 
malachite,  which  is  a form  of  carbonate  of  copper, 
and  no  doubt  when  properly  glazed  was  found  to  be 
amply  permanent,  although  sulphur  gases  aflfected  it. 

In  addition  to  these  pigments  they  had  Grecian 
green  or  Graecum  which  the  French  later  on,  called 
verte  de  grece,  from  which  the  term  verdigris  is  de- 
rived. Whether  this  was  metallic  copper  subjected  to 
vinegar  as  we  now  know  it,  or  whether  it  was  the 
turquoise  mineral  or  clayey  earth  stained  with  phos- 
phate of  copper,  as  may  have  been  the  case,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say,  for  the  verdigris  that  we  know  in  modern 
art  is  transparent,  and  has  the  qualities  of  a lake  or 
stain,  and  not  the  qualities  of  a paint. 

Concerning  the  reds  which  the  ancients  used,  we 
know  that  they  were  familiar  with  all  the  red  oxides 
of  iron,  and  the  Italians  used  not  only  calcined  sienna 
which  is  a brownish  red  and  now  recognized  as  burnt 
sienna,  but  they  also  calcined  ochre,  which  made  a 
yellower  red.  The  bright  red  or  vermilion  used  from 
the  thirteenth  century  on  under  the  name  of  sinopia, 
deserves  a chapter  for  itself,  and  will  be  described 
later  on. 

As  regards  the  blue  colors,  indigo  was  used  by  the 
Phoenicians.  This  is  an  organic  compound  which  at 
that  time,  according  to  the  latest  researches  on  the 
subject,  was  obtained  from  the  extract  of  a certain 
fish.  We  now  recognize  this  substance  as  Indican, 


[23] 


Permanent  Painting 


which  is  chemically  analogous  to  indigo,  and  is  found 
as  a product  of  decomposition,  even  in  the  human  be- 
ing. The  dark  blue  dye  that  was  used  in  Egypt,  and 
is  still  preserved  in  some  of  the  mummy  cases  is 
recognized  as  this  particular  indigo,  and  as  the  color 
is  mentioned  by  Cennini,  there  is  ample  evidence  of 
its  use.  It  never  was  permanent,  however,  and  all 
our  philosophies  on  the  colors  of  the  ancients  can  only 
refer  to  those  which  have  stood  the  test  of  time. 

Concerning  the  blacks,  we  have  evidence  that  russ 
which  is  equivalent  to  our  lampblack  was  manufac- 
tured as  far  back  as  1352,  and  that  in  the  fourteenth 
century  the  calcining  of  paints  even  to  the  ancients 
was  a familiar  operation.  * 

There  are  about  215  tube  colors  for  sale  to-day  for 
the  use  of  painters,  and  out  of  this  entire  amount  there 
are  not  over  twelve  that  may  have  any  possible  use, 
and  ninety-nine  painters  out  of  a hundred  could  get 
along  almost  perfectly  with  seven  or  eight  pigments. 
The  remainder  of  this  vast  number  of  pigments  in 
existence  are  not  only  useless,  but  are  a positive  detri- 
ment, because  every  one  of  them  has  some  inherent 
defect  which  makes  it  a menace  to  the  permanence 
of  paintings.  Inasmuch  as  we  are  concerned  with 
painting  only  as  it  has  been  tried  since  the  time  of 
Van  Eyck,  and  as  a large  number  of  the  paintings 
are  still  extant  in  a perfect  state  of  preservation  which 

* See  Eastlake,  p.  133.  Notes  from  a German  manuscript  in  the 
Public  Library  in  Strassburg. 


[24] 


Permanent  Painting 


have  been  made  since  those  days,  it  behooves  us  to 
look  into  the  materials  and  pigments  that  were  used, 
and  as  there  is  no  need  for  any  improvement  in  the 
matter  of  pigments,  it  would  be  very  well  to  stick  to 
the  old  ones. 

If  we  go  back  2000  to  3000  years  we  find  that  the 
pigments  used  by  the  Egyptians,  Phoenicians  and  those 
described  by  Pliny  were  practically  the  same  as  those 
that  were  used  by  the  painters  of  the  fourteenth,  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  In  every  case  native 
earths  were  used,  although  it  is  likely  that  zinc  oxide 
was  a manufactured  pigment  in  the  time  of  Pliny,  it 
having  been  collected  in  tbe  furnaces  where  zinc  was 
melted.  But  the  media  used  before  the  discovery  that 
oil  could  be  used  in  painting,  had  much  to  do  with  the 
permanence  and  brilliancy  of  the  colors,  for  assuming 
that  the  principal  media  in  those  days  was  always 
water  with  a glutinant  such  as  the  white  of  egg,  glue 
obtained  by  boiling  parchment  in  water,  or  some  simi- 
lar adhesive  material,  there  was  no  re-action  between 
the  colors  when  they  were  dry,  so  that  we  have  many 
examples  of  brilliant  tempera  paintings  that  are  600 
and  700  years  old.  The  Flemish  painters  as  well  as 
the  Italians  confined  themselves  to  very  few  colors, 
and  all  the  colors  used  by  the  painters  prior  to  the  time 
of  artificial  chemical  colors  are  included  in  the  fol- 
lowing list: 

Red:  Sinopia,  or  cinnibar,  which  is  the  same  as 
our  vermilion,  but  inasmuch  as  the  native  sinopia  was 


[25] 


Permanent  Painting 


used,  a variety  of  shades  were  obtained  by  selecting 
ores  ranging  from  orange  to  a very  deep  red. 

Red  oxides  of  iron,  which  were  native,  and  burnt 
ochres  and  burnt  siennas.  The  burnt  ochres  and  burnt 
siennas  are  all  equivalent  to  the  Mars  colors  of  to-day. 

Yellow;  native  ochre,  native  sienna. 

Green : powdered  malachite,  terre  verte  or  green 
earth. 

Brown : native  umber  and  bituminous  earth  similar 
to  cassel  brown,  vandyke  brown,  etc. 

Black : burnt  ivory,  charred  bones  and  condensed 
soot  (lampblack). 

White:  plaster  of  Paris  (gypsum),  whiting  (cal- 
cium carbonate).  These  two  were  used  for  gesso 
painting  and  later  for  oil  painting.  White  lead  (ceru- 
site),  zinc  oxide  moderately,  and  tin  oxide,  but  from 
the  evidence  at  hand  white  lead  was  used  more  than 
any  other  white  pigment. 

Blue : the  principal  blue  used  was  lapis  lazuli, 
which  is  identical  with  the  ultramarine  blue  of  to-day. 
This  ranges  in  color  from  a sky  blue  to  a deep  ultra- 
marine,  and  was  selected  according  to  shade. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  all  the  pigments  used  by 
the  painters  of  ancient  times  were  absolutely  perma- 
nent, for  only  those  that  have  survived  have  been  per- 
manent pigments,  orpiment,  for  instance,  which  is  the 
tri-sulphide  of  arsenic,  is  a color  which  interacted  with 
other  pigments. 


[26] 


Permanent  Painting 


A number  of  lakes  were  used  which  are  the  ex- 
tracts of  woods,  as  well  as  of  plants,  such  as  the  beet 
and  cactus  and  red  berries,  but  none  of  these  red 
lakes  were  permanent. 


[27] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  III 
SINOPIA 

THE  SEARCH  FOR  THE  MASTERS’  SECRET 

Much  time  and  thought  has  been  expended 
upon  the  so-called  search  for  the  secret  of 
the  old  masters.  This  search  was  probably 
started  by  Sir  Josbua  Reynolds,  who  had  the  idea 
that  the  permanence  of  the  pictures  of  the  old  mas- 
ters was  largely  due  to  some  secret  knowledge  which 
they  possessed  of  certain  colors,  and  that  the  so- 
called  sinopia  of  the  old  masters  was  a red  which 
disappeared  and  had  been  duplicated  after  the  six- 
teenth century.  On  the  contrary  it  is  quite  certain 
that  the  early  Italian  and  Flemish  painters  had  no 
secrets.  Their  painting  was  conducted  upon  lines 
of  common  sense  and  intellectual  investigation. 
Rubens,  Rembrandt,  Franz  Hals  and  their  contem- 
poraries did  not  use  over  five  or  possibly  seven  colors, 
and  the  sinopia  which  they  used  was  all  of  one  origin. 
Sinopia  is  evidently  derived  from  the  word  sinopis,’^ 
and  means  a red  earth  from  which  the  name  cinnibar 
has  been  derived.  We  have  therefore  the  cinnibar 
or  red  earth  which  was  well  known  as  far  back  as  the 
twelfth  century,  and  was  found  in  an  Austrian  locality 

* Die  Malerei  der  Alien,  Johns. 


[28] 


Permanent  Painting 


now  known  as  Idria,  which  at  that  time  was  a province 
of  Venetia.  In  Spain  * this  pigment  has  likewise 
long  been  known  and  is  still  found  there  to-day.  It 
occurs  as  a bright  red  earth  varying  in  color  from 
scarlet  to  deep  red,  which  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
quick  silver  vermilion  in  its  native  form,  together 
with  oxide  of  iron. 

From  analyses  made  by  the  author  of  fragments  of 
paintings  of  the  fourteenth  century,  bright  reds  are 
conclusively  proven  to  be  sulphide  of  mercury  or  ver- 
milion. It  is  also  well  known  that  for  thousands  of 
years  the  Chinese  either  made  vermilion  artificially, 
or  carefully  selected  the  bright  particles  from  their 
native  ores,  and  that  the  Chinese  vermilion  was  in- 
troduced into  Venetia  during  the  thirteenth  century 
by  Marco  Polo.  This  celebrated  explorer  traveled 
eastward,  and  found  the  first  passage  to  the  Orient. 
However,  as  the  first  authentic  biography  of  Marco 
Polo  was  written  by  John  Baptist  Remusio  200  years 
after  Marco  Polo’s  death,  there  is  some  doubt  as  to 
some  of  the  details  of  his  trip.  So  we  have,  not  only 
the  introduction  of  the  artificial  and  natural  Chinese 
vermilion  into  Italy  during  the  thirteenth  century,  but 
we  have  the  Spanish  ores  of  Almaden,  and  ores  from 
the  mines  of  Idria,  from  which  all  shades  of  bright 
red  were  selected  for  the  production  of  this  so-called 
sinopia,  which  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  brilliant 
and  permanent  red  which  was  one  of  the  causes  of 

* The  Almaden  Mines. 


[29] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  superiority  of  the  lost  art,  and  one  of  the  alleged 
great  secrets  of  the  old  masters. 

In  examining  a piece  of  ore  from  the  Idria  section, 
it  is  noted  that  many  bright  shades  of  red  may  be  ex- 
tracted and  as  sulphide  of  mercury  when  properly 
varnished  and  not  exposed  to  brilliant  sunshine  does 
not  change,  we  have  a satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
celebrated  permanent  red. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  addition  to  using  this 
red  as  a body  color,  hundreds  of  artists  glazed  this 
natural  or  artificial  red  with  madder  lake,  and  the 
condition  of  paintings  of  Franz  Hals  and  his  con- 
temporary school  is  evidence  of  that  fact. 

Some  statements  have  been  made  that  sinopia  is  a 
color  redder  than  vermilion,  and  was  made  from  mad- 
der, but  as  vermilion  or  cinnibar  is  composed  of  all 
the  shades  of  red  from  minium  to  deep  scarlet,  and 
as  madder  was  known  during  that  time,  it  is  more  than 
likely  that  the  madder  was  used  either  as  a glaze  or 
mixed  with  vermilion,  and  in  either  case  it  was  per- 
manent, because  all  of  the  painters  of  that  time  var- 
nished their  pictures. 

Some  statements  have  been  made  referring  to  mad- 
der as  a Brazil  wood  lake,  and  Eastlake  makes  the 
statement  “Lignum  brasilium  nascitur  in  partibus 
Alexandriae  et  est  rubei  coloris.”  Brazil  wood  has 
its  origin  in  a part  of  Alexandria,  and  is  of  red  color, 
but  inasmuch  as  Brazil  was  neither  discovered  nor 
exploited  for  several  centuries  afterwards,  this  state- 


[30] 


Permanent  Painting 


ment  must  be  taken  to  refer  to  some  particular  wood 
which  was  called  Brazil  wood,  and  which  was  indi- 
genous to  the  country  around  Alexandria,  and  cannot 
be  confounded  with  the  Brazil  wood  we  know,  which 
produces  a maroon  dye  that  is  exceedingly  fugitive. 

As  far  as  the  secret  of  the  old  masters  is  concerned, 
it  would  be  very  wise  for  modern  painters  not  to  wasfe 
their  time  in  a search  of  this  kind  for  these  old  masters 
whose  pictures  have  lived  to  this  day,  were  possessed 
of  only  one  secret,  which  was  common  sense. 


[31] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  IV 

PHOTO-CHEMICAL  DETERIORATION 
OF  OIL  PAINTINGS* 

All  oil  paintings  show  unmistakable  signs  of 
age.  Students  who  visit  the  various  art  galleries 
and  copy  old  oil  paintings  invariably  glaze  them 
with  a lake  color  or  asphaltum,  so  that  the  lighter 
colors  are  toned  down  and  show  a yellowish  brown 
tinge,  which  to  all  of  us  is  an  unmistakable  sign  of 
age.  The  cause  of  this  deterioration  is  nowhere  in 
the  entire  literature  of  oil  paintings,  as  far  as  the 
writer  couM  learn.  A number  of  writers  have  all 
suggested  a remedy,  which  suggests  the  causes,  the 
remedy  given  being  the  exposure  of  a painting  to 
bright  sunlight.  The  change  in  color  is  always  more 
apparent  in  the  high  lights,  and  where  light  tints  have 
been  used,  and  inasmuch  as  water  colors,  pastels, 
and  tempera  painting  do  not  show  this  particular 
deterioration,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  cause  does 
not  lie  in  the  pigment  itself,  nor  in  the  sub-stratum 
upon  which  is  painted,  but  in  the  medium  which  is 
used  to  bind  the  pigment  to  its  foundation.  In  search- 

* Read  'before  the  7th  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 
London,  May  28,  1909. 


[32] 


Permanent  Painting 


ing  for  the  cause,  an  analogous  condition  exists  on 
walls  of  buildings  which  are  painted  in  oil  paint, 
for  it  is  always  apparent  that  where  the  sun  shines  on 
a wall  it  either  retains  its  pristine  color  or  becomes 
more  brilliant.  Similarly,  back  of  the  picture  there  is 
a distinct  yellowing  or  browning  of  the  pigment  which 
gives  a clear  line  of  demarkation  where  the  picture 
hung.  Another  piece  of  evidence  is  the  fact  that  no 
such  yellowing  occurs  where  walls  are  painted  with 
distemper  or  water  colors,  but  this  particular  reaction 
is  apparent  in  every  instance  where  oil  pigments  are 
used.  After  finding  the  cause  the  task  of  finding  a 
remedy  was  more  simple.  A series  of  experiments 
were  tried  by  the  author  in  the  following  sequence, 
and  with  the  following  results : 

That  the  cause  is  what  may  be  termed  the  effect  of 
light  on  a mixture  of  white  lead,  zinc  oxide  and  lin- 
seed oil,  or  a linseed  oil  varnish  is  evident  because 
paint  chemists  have  long  known  that  white  lead  in 
any  form,  whether  it  be  called  flake  white,  kremitz 
white,  silver  white  or  white  lead,  has  a reducing  ac- 
tion on  the  pigment  present  in  linseed  oil,  or  linseed 
oil  varnish,  and  that  this  reducing  action  changes  this 
pigment  into  another  pigment  which  is  yellow.  It 
may  fairly  be  asked  whether  such  a reaction  can  take 
place  if  the  linseed  oil  is  bleached.  To  this  question 
the  reply  must  be  given  that  the  bleaching  of  linseed 
oil  does  not  destroy  the  color  which  is  present,  but 
simply  changes  it  from  an  olive  yellow  to  an  exceed- 


[33] 


Permanent  Painting 


ingly  pale  yellow,  which  can  hardly  be  seen,  so  if  we 
take  refined  or  bleached  linseed  oil  and  mix  it  with 
white  lead  or  a pigment  containing  white  lead  or  zinc 
oxide,  we  have  a very  brilliant  white  which  remains 
white  as  long  as  it  is  exposed  to  bright  light.  If 
we  take  this  mixture  and  place  it  for  six  weeks  in 
an  absolutely  dark  place,  the  white  paint  changes  into 
the  well  known  yellow  tint  and  it  is  this  particular 
change  which  produces  in  all  paintings  the  distinct 
yellowness  of  age.  Flaxseed,  from  which  linseed  oil 
is  made,  contains  a coloring  matter  which  is  known 
as  chlorophyll.  This  is  the  same  coloring  matter  which 
is  found  in  all  plants,  in  many  of  the  woods  and  in 
a large  number  of  gums  and  resins,  particularly  in  the 
fossil  resins. 

Vibert,  the  well  known  French  painter,  knew  this 
fact  without  having  been  able  to  trace  it  to  its  chemical 
cause,  and  this  led  him  to  abandon  entirely  linseed 
oil  as  a binding  medium  and  to  substitute  petroleum 
and  colophony  compounds  with  which  he  painted  most 
of  his  pictures.  Nearly  all  of  his  subjects  contain 
little  or  no  light  colors,  such  as  whites  or  straw  colors, 
but  as  his  particular  forte  lay  in  painting  pictures 
of  cardinals,  the  original  brilliancy  of  his  paintings 
still  remains,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  his  pictures 
should  not  endure  for  centuries,  if  they  are  properly 
protected  from  any  influence  of  the  elements  and  ob- 
noxious gases  of  modern  civilization. 

A long  series  of  experiments  were,  therefore,  made 


[34] 


Permanent  Painting 


and  commercial  chlorophyll,  which  is  the  coloring 
matter  of  flaxseed,  grass,  and  the  fossil  resins,  was 
taken  and  mixed  with  white  lead  and  zinc  oxide  (zinc 
white),  exposed  to  the  sunlight  for  a short  time  and 
then  placed  in  a dark  closet  for  varying  periods  from 
six  weeks  to  three  months.  In  every  instance  the 
white  turned  yellow ; sometimes  a bright  canary  yel- 
low, sometimes  a dirty  yellowish  brown,  but  the  yel- 
low effect  was  always  obtained.  A similar  line  of 
experiments  was  made  in  which  gum  damar  was 
dissolved  in  turpentine,  naphtha  and  benzol,  and 
the  results  carefully  noted.  Gum  damar  and  turpen- 
tine showed  only  an  exceedingly  slight  decomposition, 
and  gum  damar  containing  a small  percentage  of 
benzol  and  a large  percentage  of  naphtha  showed  no 
decomposition.  The  human  eye  is  not  very  sensitive 
to  these  shades,  but  fortunately  we  have  the  pho- 
tographic plate.  Photographs  taken  of  these  various 
mixtures  on  plates  which  are  not  over  sensitive  to 
yellow  show  up  these  results  with  better  effect  than 
the  human  eye  can  discern  them  in  the  original 
chlorophyll  experiment. 

Another  line  of  experiments  was  carried  out,  in 
which  bleached  linseed  oil  was  used.  This  turned 
exceedingly  yellow  in  three  months,  but  when  ex- 
posed for  three  months  to  the  bright  sunlight  it  be- 
came brilliant  white  again,  and  upon  being  placed  in 
a dark  closet  for  another  three  months  no  change  took 
place.  Those  parts  of  the  painted  experiment  which 


[35] 


Permanent  Painting 


had  been  bleached  by  the  sunlight  remained  white 
in  the  dark  closet  at  the  end  of  the  experiment.  This 
would,  therefore,  prove  that  when  a picture  has  turned 
yellow  it  can  safely  be  exposed  to  the  sunlight  in 
order  to  bring  it  back  to  its  natural  brilliancy,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  no  part  of  it  has  been  painted 
with  asphaltum  or  bitumen,  for  the  asphaltum  and 
bitumen  instead  of  bleaching  in  the  light  become 
black.  To  those  who  are  interested  in  this  photo-chem- 
ical experiment,  the  author  refers  to  his  paper  on  “The 
Influence  of  Sunlight  on  Paints  and  Varnishes,”  Jour- 
nal Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  April  15,  1908,  No. 
7,  Vol.  XXVII. 

Nearly  all  of  the  varnishes,  with  few  exceptions, 
contribute  largely  to  this  deterioration  of  oil  paint- 
ings, because  the  coloring  matter  in  a dark  place  or 
away  from  the  brilliant  light  changes  from  a neutral 
or  invisible  to  a yellowish  tint,  which  is  due  to  a direct 
decomposition  of  chlorophyll  into  one  of  its  lower 
bodies.  A similar  line  of  experiments  were  conducted 
with  such  resins  as  Manila  copal.  West  Coast  copal, 
and  Zanzibar  copal,  all  of  which  turned  yellow  even 
though  no  linseed  oil  was  present.  It  is,  therefore, 
easy  to  conclude  that  these  and  all  fossil  resins  con- 
tain coloring  matters  similar  to  those  present  in  grass, 
flaxseed,  and  in  some  instances,  turpentine. 

Furthermore,  all  of  these  fossil  resins  when  used 
for  making  varnish  are  reduced  or  fluxed  in  a solution 
of  linseed  oil.  The  varnishes  which,  however,  do  not 


[36] 


Permanent  Painting 


show  this  same  effect  are  the  alcohol  varnishes  com- 
posed of  solutions  of  bleached  shellac,  sandarac,  and 
mastic,  although  these  show  also  some  slight  tendency 
toward  turning  yellow.  The  one  resin  which,  however, 
resisted  the  action  of  darkening  when  mixed  with 
white  lead  was  gum  damar.  As  there  are  three  well 
known  varieties  of  this  gum  used  in  the  arts,  the  au- 
thor has  found  that  Batavia,  Singapore  and  Pedang, 
when  selected  for  brilliancy  of  color  in  their  original 
state,  are  the  safest  to  use,  but  there  are  varieties  of 
these  three  gums  which  are  originally  yellow  and 
should  be  avoided  either  as  a varnish  or  as  a medium 
for  oil  painting.  The  objection  may  be  urged  that 
the  solution  of  gum  damar  is  not  sufficiently  binding 
as  compared  with  linseed  oil,  but  to  this  the  answer 
must  be  made  that  an  oil  painting  is  never  exposed 
to  the  elements  and  is  certainly  more  tenacious  and 
less  liable  to  decomposition  than  the  media  used  by 
the  ancients  such  as  white  of  egg,  mucilaginous  mat- 
ter, etc.  We  have  authentic  records  where  paintings 
executed  by  the  Romans  with  poor  and  weak  media 
have  lasted  for  upwards  of  twenty  centuries. 

Of  the  solid  white  pigments,  which  induce  the 
decomposition  of  oil  and  varnishes,  white  lead  is  the 
strongest  in  its  action  and  zinc  sulphide,  or  lithopone, 
is  the  weakest.  It  has  been  urged  that  lithopone,  which 
is  a mixture  of  zinc  sulphide  and  barium  sulphate — 
barium  sulphate  being  the  old  permanent  white  or 
blanc  fixe — should  be  substituted  for  all  white  pig- 


[37] 


Permanent  Painting 


ments  in  oil  painting,  but  this  cannot  be  urged  at  pres- 
ent for  the  reason  that  tlie  majority  of  the  lithopones 
are  acted  upon  by  light  and  turn  gray,  although  there 
are  a variety  of  patents  for  the  manufacture  of  lith- 
opone  which  are  alleged  to  be  permanent.  On  exam- 
ining these  we  find  that  their  brilliancy  is  superin- 
duced by  the  addition  of  a soluble  salt  such  as  nitrate 
of  soda,  and  when  lithopone,  either  according  to  the 
special  American  patents  or  the  German  patents,  is 
mixed  with  gum  damar  solution  no  change  takes 
place,  but  when  mixed  with  linseed  oil,  either  bleached 
or  unbleached,  the  soluble  salt  produces  the  same 
effect  as  white  lead  in  so  far  that  it  reduces  the  color- 
ing matter  from  a neutral  and  invisible  tint  to  a yellow 
or  yellowish  pigment,  and,  therefore,  no  advantage  is 
gained  at  present  by  the  use  of  this  so-called  perma- 
nent lithopone.  Zinc  oxide,  or  zinc  white,  is  therefore, 
as  yet,  the  most  permanent  pigment,  although  perma- 
nent white  or  blanc  fixe  is  absolutely  inert  but  it  has 
the  inherent  weakness  that  it  has  no  hiding  power  and 
is  really  more  of  a glaze  than  an  opaque  pigment. 

However,  if  linseed  oil  is  insisted  upon  by  the  paint- 
er the  raw,  unbleached,  unrefined  product  should  be 
used  for  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  it  cannot 
grow  any  darker  as  long  as  the  coloring  matter  is  not 
visibly  hidden,  but  may  improve,  for  upon  exposure 
the  coloring  matter  will  surely  bleach,  and  upon  re- 
placing the  painting  in  a poorly  lighted  room  it  will 
not  grow  any  darker  than  it  originally  was  when  the 


[38] 


Permanent  Painting 


painter  used  it.  Some  painters  use  poppy  oil,  which  is 
almost  colorless ; other  painters  use  walnut  oil,  but  the 
author  finds  that  while  poppy  oil  and  walnut  oil  are 
not  so  prone  to  become  yellow  with  age,  they  never- 
theless do  become  yellow  and  have  in  addition  the 
fault  of  drying  exceedingly  slowly,  which  interferes 
largely  with  the  progress  of  the  painting.  The  driers- 
that  painters  use  are  also  to  be  avoided.  The  one 
color,  megilp,  which  contains  both  lead  and  manganese, 
frequently  exhibits  a dirty  pink,  and  the  sugar  of  lead 
drier  turns  the  oil  yellow  even  quicker  than  white 
lead  does. 

Summing  up  the  facts  before  us,  it  is  reasonable  to 
conclude  that  in  order  to  make  a painting  permanent 
a medium  like  damar  or  mastic  varnish,  which  has 
back  of  it  a long  history  and  is  not  experimental,  may 
be  advocated  for  general  use  as  a varnish  with  which 
to  glaze  a painting  and  preserve  its  permanency.  It 
has  very  few  defects  and  much  in  its  favor.  In  looking 
over  the  works  of  the  Flemish  artists,  particularly 
those  by  the  Van  Eycks,  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
London  galleries,  it  is  quite  evident  that  all  these 
painters  used  a medium  other  than  tempera.  It  is 
exceedingly  likely  that  the  medium  contained  little 
linseed  oil,  and  possibly  a varnish  composed  of  an 
easily  soluble  gum,  either  like  damar  or  mastic. 


[39] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CAUSE  OF  THE  CRACKING  OF 
PAINTINGS  AND  THE  REMEDIES 

IT  is  very  interesting  to  note  that  the  little  which 
is  written  on  this  subject  varies  with  the  actual 
facts  presented  in  the  case,  and  in  addition  is 
relatively  incomplete.  Nearly  all  writers  give,  as  the 
cause  of  the  cracking  of  paintings,  two  or  three  or- 
dinary phenomena,  when,  as  a matter  of  fact,  the 
cause  of  the  cracking  of  paintings  may  be  due  to  a 
large  variety  of  causes.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal causes  for  the  cracking  of  paintings : 

I.  The  application  of  such  pigments  as,  for  in- 
stance, umber  or  zinc  white  over  lampblack,  graphite, 
black  lead,  asphaltum  or  lake. 

2.  The  application  to  a picture  of  a varnish  over 
a surface  that  has  not  been  thoroughly  dried. 

3.  The  effect  of  dry  atmosphere  on  a painting, 
which  contracts  the  canvas  and  leaves  the  paint  film 
in  its  original  size. 

4.  The  unequal  tension  or  compression  of  a can- 
vas due  to  moisture. 

5.  The  application  of  a flat  drying  paint  over  a 
glossy  paint. 


[40] 


Photo-micrograph  of  a section  of  an  oil  painting  showing 
cracks.  A.  A.  is  a photograph  of  the  warp  of  the  can- 
vas. The  oblong  white  surfaces  are  thin  films  of  paint 
which  are  cracked  through  tension  and  drying. 


^ rr,  anent  Pam  ring 


CHAm,^..v 

^>E  OF  i ;i  : i-fACi  TNG  OF 

GsGS  AND  Tiir  D^-;:v;Dr)(KS 


';e--n  vari. 


■hi:  I'tiir- 

th- 
:ii  add.. 


'■-."y  nitercisung  to 
‘i  ,;n  OT5  rliis 

■ ■ • : ‘o;erted  in  the  cass., 

o.con.plete.  Nearly  a!)  antert  give.  ...  the 
e . I the  cracking  of  paino.igs,  two  or  th ,jy. 
rv  rOiaiomena,  when,  as  a oiatirr  of  fa-.y  »he 

■ of  the  cracking  of  paintings  rna',.  be  d . ■ x 
variety  of  causes.  The  following  are  h . -an 
VU.SC.S  for  the  cracking  of  paiuling,s; 

application  of  such  pigricnts  as.  ’. r g;. 
A vrdwr  or  zinc  wliite  over  bmoblack,  gray;  ;a. 
Nad,  aspnaliurn  or  lake. 


application  to  a pictn: 
that  iia.s  not  been  thoro- 
i he  eTcct  o.f  dry  atmosp.  . 
"on tracts  the  • n>.wr  -r*-*  * 


i.:se) 


vTaT~sf?A~ 


' 'Wtngoloilq  d ,i 

pamt  “S'™-""  ,y 


*..• 


• ^ - V A , • • 


Permanent  Painting 


6.  The  application  of  megilp  over  a soft  ground. 

7.  The  use  of  bitumen  as  a glaze. 

I.  We  learn  from  practical  painters  who  apply 
colors  and  varnishes  to  the  surfaces  of  carriages,  au- 
tomobiles and  railway  cars,  that  a proper  ground  must 
be  prepared  so  that  each  coat  will  be  dependent  upon 
the  other,  and  that  the  priming  coat  shall  be  harder 
than  the  layer  above  it.  Practical  painters,  however, 
never  have  surfaces  like  canvas  to  paint,  excepting 
when  these  surfaces  are  directly  applied  by  means 
of  a glutinant  to  a wall  or  similar  foundation.  We 
notice,  even  in  the  climate  of  North  America,  where 
the  temperature  variation  is  about  130°  F.,  that  the 
paint  film  on  nearly  all  vehicles  is  permanent  without 
cracking  or  peeling  for  several  years.  The  principal 
cause  is  that  a priming  coat  is  applied  of  a hard  drying 
paint  which  is  rubbed  down  so  as  to  present  a smooth 
and  uniform  layer,  and  that  a gloss  coat  is  never  placed 
over  a gloss  coat,  but  a gloss  coat  is  always  applied 
over  a flat  coat,  in  which  case  we  have  what  is  known 
as  a “mechanical  bond.” 

Canvas  made  of  linen  is  exceedingly  susceptible  to 
the  influence  of  moisture,  and  prepared  canvas  is 
generally  sold  with  a coating  that  is  sufficiently  flat 
and  has  a better  grain  so  that  the  first  layer  at  least 
takes  good  hold.  In  order,  therefore,  to  prevent  crack- 
ing and  to  remedy  it  when  it  has  taken  place,  it  is 
essential  to  apply  a good  coat  of  paint  on  the  back  of 


[41] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  canvas,  or  to  mount  the  finished  picture  upon 
another  sheet  of  canvas  which  has  been  previously 
painted.  The  paint  which  has  been  found  most  suit- 
able for  the  prevention  of  the  absorption  of  moisture 
by  a finished  picture,  and  which  in  many  instances  will 
close  up  minute  hairline  cracks  that  have  already 
started,  is  a mixture  composed  of  one  pound  of  red 
lead,  dry,  one  pound  white  zinc,  ground  in  oil,  thinned 
with  sufficient  raw  oil  and  turpentine  to  make  a ready 
for  use  paint,  having  the  consistency  of  cream.  This 
mixture  cannot  be  kept  ready  for  use,  because  the  red 
lead  will  combine  with  the  oil  and  form  a species  of  ce- 
ment which  dries  very  hard,  and  yet  has  some  flex- 
ibility. The  application  of  such  a mixture  to  the  back 
of  a canvas  makes  it  impervious  to  moisture  and  at- 
mospheric influences,  and  preserves  an  otherwise  weak 
painting. 

When  the  cracking  occurs  through  the  influence 
exerted  on  the  back  of  the  canvas,  it  is  due  absolutely 
to  an  engineering  condition  which  is  known  as  “com- 
pression and  tension.”  The  accompanying  diagram 
illustrates  this  fact,  so  that  we  may  have  cracking 
which  is  entirely  due  to  a curvature  of  the  painted 
surface  which  is  known  as  tension,  or  a compression 
of  the  canvas  side,  which  is  known  as  compression. 

The  artistic  painter  can  demonstrate  this  for  him- 
self, if  he  will  take  an  ordinary  kodak  film,  which  is 
perfectly  flat,  and  paint  one  side  of  it  with  a mixture 
of,  say,  zinc  white  or  reduced  with  turpentine  only. 


[42] 


^ PAINT 
^NEUTRAL 
AXIS 
CANVAS 

The  Engineering  features  of  a pamting  at  rest  in  which  the  centre 
line  is  the  neutral  axis. 


CRACKS 
PRODUCED 
THROUGH  TEITSiON 


NEUTRAL 

AXIS 


The  canvas  in  compression  ami  the  paint  in  tension,  the  tension 
producing  cracks  owing  to  the  expansion  of  the  paint  films. 


c 


WRINKLES 

NEUTRAL 

AXIS 


The  paint  in  compression  and  the  canvas  in  tension,  zohich  is  the 
cause  of  paint  films  being  forced  from  the  canvas  as  indicated  by 
the  arrow. 


Permanent  Painting 


fasten  it  to  a board  so  that  it  will  not  curl,  and 
when  it  is  dry,  bend  the  surface  which  has  been 
painted  in  an  outward  direction,  whereupon  he  will 
find  that  the  painted  surface  will  show  minute  delicate 
cracks,  which  explains  the  theory  of  tension,  and  the 
theory  of  compression.  The  side  in  tension  which  is 
the  painted  side,  invariably  cracks.  This  then  goes 
far  toward  explaining  why  pictures  painted  on  metal 
or  on  wood  have  stood  for  centuries  and  have  not 
cracked,  and  why  unprotected  pictures  painted  on  can- 
vas have  cracked.  Even  wood  panels  are  better  pro- 
tected when  they  are  varnished  on  the  reverse  side 
than  when  they  are  permitted  to  warp. 

The  author  cites  as  an  illustration  a painting  by 
Michau  on  an  oak  panel  which  had  for  two  centuries 
remained  evidently  in  a perfectly  flat  condition  in  Bel- 
gium, but  became  badly  warped  when  brought  over 
to  America,  and  only  the  application  on  the  edges  and 
the  reverse  side  of  two  coats  of  the  red  lead  and  zinc 
paint,  prevented  what  might  have  been  a bad  crack- 
ing of  the  panel  itself.  The  climate  in  the  winter  in 
the  United  States  shows  an  abnormally  dry  condition, 
and  in  the  summer  an  abnormally  moist  condition, 
so  that  a painting  which  will  curve  outwardly  in  the 
winter  through  the  contraction  of  the  underside,  will 
curve  inwardly  in  the  summer  time,  and  this  alter- 
nate bending  inwardly  and  outwardly  would  eventually 
show  some  cracks. 

2.  One  of  the  most  fruitful  surfaces  for  the  crack- 


[43] 


Permanent  Painting 


ing  of  pictures  is  the  varnishing  of  a picture  before  it 
is  dry,  and  complaints  are  frequently  heard  that  some 
varnishes  are  less  liable  to  crack  than  others.  This 
is  largely  the  case  with  the  alcohol  varnishes  which 
show  a tendency  to  crack,  and  owing  to  their  brittle- 
ness they  should  only  be  used  under  certain  conditions. 
As  the  alcohol  varnishes  dry  by  evaporation  they  dry 
very  rapidly.  Many  of  the  paints  expand  in  the  drying 
and  some  few  of  them  ultimately  contract,  so  that 
in  either  case  varnishing  even  after  apparent  dryness 
with  an  alcohol  varnish  will  produce  very  bad  cracks. 
It  has  been  generally  stated,  as  an  axiom,  that  a pic- 
ture should  be  six  months  old  before  it  be  varnished. 
This  is  merely  an  arbitrary  figure,  and  in  every  instance 
it  is  far  better  to  wait  a year  if  it  can  be  conveniently 
done,  than  to  varnish  a picture  in  six  months.  Where, 
for  instance,  a very  slow  drying  pigment  like  any  one 
of  the  lakes,  lampblack,  black  lead,  etc.,  are  used, 
and  the  picture  is  varnished  before  these  pigments  are 
thoroughly  dry,  cracking  is  bound  to  ensue.  We  there- 
fore have  the  familiar  phenomenon  of  a varnished 
picture  which  cracks  in  some  places  and  is  perfectly 
intact  in  others.  This  is  due  entirely  to  the  so-called 
selective  drying  of  the  pigment  itself.  It  is  therefore 
wise  under  any  circumstance  to  expose  a picture  to  a 
current  of  air  and  to  the  bright  light  before  varnishing. 

3.  This  can  always  be  obviated  by  properly  paint- 
ing the  underside  of  the  canvas.  Where  a painting  of 
the  underside  is  not  desirable,  the  picture  can  be 


[44] 


moun''.’'* 
of  I 


\ oiiKU  ;•  ':•>  f '<>  * 


4 r.  *=•  < ..lx:=a::.  -wi 
'•T'ld  vvi  i-  ' 


on  canvas,  is  more  noincn^  • •' 
the.  eastern  part  of  l.h'’  ■ 

Germany  or  England  v’k'x 
tively  moist  the  yea; 
preserved  in  any  chm>o'-  ■ 
tected  against  dampness  ■ . 

upon  which  the  paint  ■ 

sion  and  contraction  wh.. 
efficient  of  expansior,,"  - 
there  would  be  no  troud:- 
paint  film  of  an  oil  pamr,; 
absorb  moisture,  and  '.'  I'e!.. 
the  moisture  just  as  ■ 
very  readily  and  d -icr  oui:  vs  - 
ticularly  dry  wood,  absom;.  tv.-'  ■ 
slowly  than  canvas.  Tbo^i  a’ 
paintings  on  copper  wh 
served  for  many  cent;  r?cs,  ■- 
can  use  either  well 


advisable  to  do  sO. 

- fJUU  <!slonT)  \o  iUii)t^OTjim-oU))i‘l 

. ^ , imo  sirtanra  aivailX  . .xUiinu'x  aili  ui  baJwjiia  iaub 
tive  drying  qtiali  u - 0('' 

for  the  painter  to  -ol'  < ■ 


.a'rti!«8d 


The  'folftfwm: 


Photo-micrograph  of  cracks  in  a painting,  and  dirt  or 
dust  encysted  in  the  varnish.  These  cracks  are  open 
fissures. 


Permanent  Painting 


mounted  either  upon  metal  or  upon  another  stretch 
of  canvas  by  means  of  a mixture  of  white  lead  and 
Venice  turpentine. 

4.  The  climatic  influence  which  has  been  previously 
described,  and  which  will  cause  cracks  particularly 
on  canvas,  is  more  noticeable  in  climates  like  those  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  than  it  is  in 
Germany  or  England  where  the  atmosphere  is  rela- 
tively moist  the  year  round.  Paintings  can  be  best 
preserved  in  any  climate  when  they  are  properly  pro- 
tected against  dampness  or  dry  air.  If  the  material 
upon  which  the  paint  is  applied  had  the  same  expan- 
sion and  contraction  which  is  technically  called  “co- 
efflcieht  of  expansion,”  as  the  pigments  themselves, 
there  would  be  no  trouble  from  this  source,  but  the 
paint  film  of  an  oil  painting  is  exceedingly  slow  to 
absorb  moisture,  and  when  the  air  is  dry  it  gives  up 
the  moisture  just  as  slowly,  whereas  canvas  absorbs 
very  readily  and  dries  out  very  readily.  Wood,  par- 
ticularly dry  wood,  absorbs  moisture  readily  but  more 
slowly  than  canvas.  There  are  a large  number  of  old 
paintings  on  copper  which  have  been  technically  pre- 
served for  many  centuries,  so  that  where  a painter 
can  use  either  well  seasoned  wood  or  copper,  it  is 
advisable  to  do  so. 

5.  In  the  proper  chapter  (see  page  187),  the  rela- 
tive drying  qualities  of  paints  are  given,  and  it  is  wise 
for  the  painter  to  follow  the  rules  laid  down. 

The  following  experiment  will  illustrate  a fruitful 


[45] 


Permanent  Painting 


source  of  cracks  in  painting  and  many  other  pigments 
will  act  in  a similar  manner  to  a greater  or  lesser  de- 
gree. Materials  like  minium,  which  is  red  lead,  or 
burnt  umber,  dry  with  great  rapidity,  particularly 
when  turpentine  is  added.  Apply  either  one  of  these 
pigments  over  a ground  work  of  pigments  composed 
of  lampblack  or  a lake,  and  it  will  be  readily  noted 
that  within  two  weeks  the  top  coat  will  contract  and 
the  bottom  coat  will  expand,  so  that,  because  these  two 
pigments  do  not  dry  co-ordinately,  cracks  will  develop 
and  the  surface  will  resemble  alligator  hide,  sometimes 
minutely,  and  sometimes  with  scales  almost  as  large 
as  those  of  the  alligator  hide  itself. 

6.  The  use  of  megilp. 

This  refers  to  the  previous  paragraph,  and  comes 
under  the  same  heading,  for  megilp  is  a powerful 
oxidizing  agent,  and  will  produce  a cracking  when 
mixed  with  any  pigment  if  placed  over  a soft  drying 
ground.  The  same  phenomenon  results  if  megilp  is 
used  excessively  with  even  a slow  drying  color  such 
as  madder  lake  or  lampblack.  Megilp,  irrespective 
of  this  fact,  is  a material  which  should  not  be  used 
by  any  painter,  for  in  addition  to  its  rapid  drying 
qualities,  it  has  a destructive  influence  on  many  of 
the  finer  colors. 

7.  Bitumen  as  a glaze  has  been  productive  of  more 
damage  than  painters  are  aware  of.  It  will  produce 
cracks  over  almost  any  pigment  to  which  it  be  ap- 
plied, for  it  dries  principally  by  evaporation,  whereas 


[46] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  ground  upon  which  it  is  placed  dries  by  oxidation. 
Its  photo-chemical  defects  have  been  described  under 
the  heading  of  asphaltum,  page  89,  and  need  not  be  re- 
peated here,  but  its  physical  defects  are  so  patent,  and 
it  has  been  productive  of  so  much  disaster  in  the  pro- 
duction of  cracks,  owing  to  unequal  tension  which 
it  produces,  that  it  should  never  be  used. 


[47] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  VI 

CANVAS,  WOOD  AND  METAL 
AS  FOUNDATIONS 

IT  is  obvious  that  the  best  foundation  for  any  pic- 
ture is  a sheet  of  metal.  The  next  choice  is  a 
panel  of  oak  or  mahogany  thoroughly  seasoned, 
and  last  and  least,  a stretch  of  canvas.  Copper  has 
been  used  for  centuries  as  a foundation  for  pictures, 
and  as  such  cannot  be  improved  upon,  particularly  if 
the  copper  be  rolled  out  sufficiently  thin  and  fastened 
to  a well  seasoned  piece  of  wood.  Next  in  choice  and 
perhaps  just  as  good,  is  zinc,  but  as  both  copper  and 
zinc  are  exceedingly  smooth,  it  is  always  advisable 
to  roughen  the  surface  by  means  of  sand  or  emery 
powder,  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  ground 
glass,  after  which  it  takes  the  first  coat  of  paint  with 
perfect  ease. 

If  artistic  painters  would  only  follow  the  precept  and 
experience  of  coach  painters,  who,  from  time  imme- 
morial have  followed  the  same  rule,  pictures  would 
be  much  more  permanent  and  less  liable  to  crack. 
The  coach  painter,  and  in  this  category  must  be  in- 
cluded the  railway  car  painter  and  the  automobile 


[48] 


Painting  on  niuho^any  panel  showing  serious  cracks 
produced  by  varnishing  the  picture  before  the  underlying 
coat  was  sufficiently  dry. 

(Painting  in  the  possession  of  the  author.) 


f --  - , 

i.'ermanent  Painting 


tiiAPTER  VI 
.b.  WOOD  AND  rwlPTA!. 


FOUNDATIONS 


% • ■ . * that  the  best  founds tio; • - Any  pic- 

: • :s  -beel  of  metaJ.  The  next  choice  is  a 
. .;tk  or  mahogany  thoroughly  seasoned, 

: i :ou5t,  3.  strctch  of  canyas.  Copper  has 

: • ?.  n-e.i  \ui  centuries  as  a foundation  for  pictures, 
^t:ch  canfjot  be  improved  upon,  particularly  if 
copper  be  rolled  out  sufFtcicritly  thin  and  fastened 
= ’ a well  seasoned  piece  of  wood.  Next  in  choice  and 
perhaps  just  as  good,  is  zir.c,  but  as  both  copper  and 
ziiic  are  exceedingly  smooth,  it  is  always  advisable 
to  roughen  the  surface  by  rneans  of  sand  or  emery 
powder,  which  gives,  it  iiie  appearance  o-<^  ground 
glass,  after  which  it  takes  the  first  coat  of  paint  with 
perfect  ease. 

if  artistic  painters  would  only  follow  the  srecept  and 
experience  ot  coach  painters,  who,  from  urne  imme- 

1(0 , &.nh#<h»'^v'ould 


eluded  the  railway  car  --O inter 


o i p'le  automobile 


r 


Permanent  Painting 


painter,  prepare  the  metal  or  wooden  surface  by  first 
rubbing  with  sandpaper,  emery  cloth  or  pumice  stone. 
Any  imperfections  in  the  surface  are  generally  re- 
moved by  the  application  of  a first  coating  of  what 
is  known  as  “rough  stuff.”  Rough  stuff  may  be  a 
finely  powdered  mineral  such  as  slate  or  silicious 
clay,  to  which  a little  lampblack  and  white  lead  is 
added.  The  medium  is  not  oil  but  Japan  varnish, 
which  is  composed  of  a hard,  quick-drying  varnish 
containing  very  little  oil.  After  two  or  three  days, 
or  sooner,  this  coating  is  sufficiently  dry  to  be  rubbed 
again,  and  a coat  of  white  lead  and  lampblack  is  then 
applied,  or  pure  white  lead  mixed  with  the  same  Japan 
varnish  which  is  known  as  “Gold  Size  Japan,”  or 
“Coach  Makers  Japan.”  After  this  second  coat  is 
rubbed  it  presents  a good  surface  for  subsequent  paint- 
ing, which  is  exceedingly  hard,  but  yet  not  brittle. 
This  description  refers,  of  course,  to  painting  on  a 
solid  foundation  like  wood  or  metal,  for  on  canvas 
such  a treatment  is  ill  advised  owing  to  the  unequal 
expansion  and  contraction  between  the  canvas  and  the 
hard  coating  of  such  a priming  paint. 

From  experiments  which  the  author  has  made,  it 
would  appear  that  a sheet  of  aluminum  tV  of  an  inch 
thick  rubbed  with  either  linseed  oil  and  finely  pow- 
dered emery,  or  with  pumice  stone  and  water,  pre- 
sents a surface  upon  which  a mixture  of  zinc  white  and 
white  lead  may  be  applied,  forming  a surface  most  de- 
sirable for  subsequent  painting,  and  giving  a film  which 


[49] 


Permanent  Painting 


should  be  permanent  for  all  time.  Under  no  circum- 
stances should  the  priming  coat  of  any  picture  dry 
with  a high  gloss,  otherwise  no  union  takes  place  be- 
tween the  film  of  paint  and  the  metal  to  which  it  be 
applied.  The  unequal  expansion  between  an  elastic 
coat  and  a rigid  metal  are  very  undesirable,  but  in 
spite  of  any  good  advice  that  may  be  given  on  this 
subject,  painters  will  continue  to  paint  on  canvas, 
and  such  being  the  case,  the  best  advice  to  give  is 
to  follow  the  precepts  of  the  old  Flemish  painters,  and 
paste  the  canvas  either  on  a wood  or  metal  foundation 
with  white  lead  and  Venice  turpentine. 

Where  canvas  is  mounted  on  a wooden  stretcher,  and 
is  sufficiently  dry,  the  best  application  for  the  back 
is  a hard  drying  semi-elastic  paint,  composed  of  red 
lead,  white  lead  and  zinc  oxide,  raw  oil  and  turpentine. 
This  should  be  applied  until  a thick  glossy  coating  is 
obtained.  Such  a coating  prevents  cracks,  and  in- 
hibits any  chemical  action  through  the  underside  of 
the  canvas. 

The  purchase  of  ready  made  canvas  is  not  always 
to  be  recommended.  This  statement  refers  to  the 
canvas  ready  for  immediate  painting.  Where  a paint- 
er has  the  time  a canvas  may  be  purchased  mounted 
upon  a proper  stretcher  and  treated  in  the  following 
manner : A first  coat  of  white  lead  is  applied  to  the 
front  and  back  of  the  canvas,  and  then  a second  coat 
of  zinc  oxide  on  the  front  of  the  canvas  is  properly 
rubbed  down  and  smoothed.  This  makes  an  admirable 


[50] 


Permanent  Painting 


surface  which  has  sufficient  tooth  to  take  subsequent 
coats. 

It  has  often  been  advised  to  prime  canvas  with  a 
glue  size,  but  the  glue  is  continually  subject  to  the 
influence  of  moisture,  which  it  will  absorb  on  a damp 
day  and  release  again  on  a dry  day,  so  that  continual 
contraction  and  expansion  take  place,  which  is  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  cracking  of  paintings.  A good  hard 
coat  of  paint  composed  of  white  lead,  more  zinc  and 
coach  painter’s  japan  properly  applied  to  the  surface  of 
canvas  will,  in  a few  days,  lay  the  lint  sufficiently  hard 
so  that  it  can  be  sandpapered  smooth.  The  next  coat, 
which  should  also  be  a coat  that  does  not  dry  glossy 
and  that  contains  sufficient  turpentine,  will  make  a 
perfectly  smooth  foundation,  and  a paint  of  this  sort 
is  less  subject  to  expansion  and  contraction  than  one 
painted  on  a glue  size.  Any  painter  can  prepare  a 
dozen  canvases  after  this  method,  and  if  they  are  placed 
in  the  sun  and  allowed  to  ripen  with  age,  they  even- 
tually become  hard  without  becoming  brittle. 

For  a canvas  which  is  to  be  rolled  up,  a totally 
different  method  must  be  pursued.  Such  a canvas 
must  have  a very  flexible  foundation,  and  this  can  best 
be  obtained  by  using  raw  linseed  oil  with  a mixture 
of  white  lead  and  lampblack  as  a first  coat.  This  mix- 
ture will  take  several  days  to  dry.  It  should  be  very 
thinly  applied,  each  coat  containing  less  lampblack 
until  a white  surface  is  obtained.  The  rear  side  of 
the  canvas  where  it  is  to  be  rolled  up,  should  be  treated 


[51] 


Permanent  Painting 


solely  with  a coat  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  nothing  else. 
A canvas  so  treated  will  remain  flexible  for  many 
years. 


[52] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  VII 

PREPARATION  OF  CANVAS  IN 
COMMERCIAL  PRACTICE 

CANVAS  for  oil  painting  is  stretched  upon  large 
frames,  and  receives  a sizing  coat  of  glue  and 
water.  After  this  sizing  coat  is  dry,  three  coats 
of  white  lead  in  oil  slightly  tinted  with  black  to 
produce  a gray  color  are  applied.  The  first  coat  is 
generally  a very  thick  mixture  of  lead,  oil,  turpentine 
and  drier  which  is  applied  to  the  canvas  by  means 
of  a stick,  and  then  scraped  oflf  with  a curved  steel 
knife.  This  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  pressing  the 
material  into  the  fibre  of  the  canvas,  and  likewise 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  a perfectly  smooth  sur- 
face. The  two  following  coats  are  usually  applied 
by  means  of  brushes,  and  the  material  is  thinned  down 
with  turpentine  so  that  it  will  dry  perfectly  flat.  The 
canvas  is  then  stripped  from  the  frame  and  rolled  up, 
and  after  a few  months  becomes  decidedly  brittle. 
Up  to  date  there  has  been  no  improvement  in  the 
preparation  of  canvas  and  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
in  this  age  of  progress  the  preparation  of  canvas  is 
still  a hand-made  procedure.  Canvas  ought  really  to 


[53] 


Permanent  Painting 


be  coated  on  both  sides,  and  the  coatings  should  be 
so  very  flexible  that  the  question  of  cracking  when 
the  canvas  is  rolled  up  should  be  entirely  eliminated. 

The  use  of  wood  panels  is  not  to  be  recommended  in 
America,  unless  the  wood  is  thoroughly  seasoned. 
After  it  has  been  seasoned  and  planed,  it  should  be 
allowed  to  soak  for  several  weeks  in  a linseed  oil 
varnish  in  order  that  it  may  absorb  sufficient  material 
to  prevent  future  warping.  The  hygroscopic  condi- 
tions in  America  are  totally  different  from  those  pre- 
vailing in  Europe.  In  Europe  a painting  on  wood 
will  remain  perfect  for  centuries,  because  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  air  remains  fairly  uniform  for  a 
given  locality,  but  even  on  the  sea  coasts  in  the  United 
States  the  moisture  conditions  in  the  atmosphere  var> 
so  remarkably  that  it  is  below  normal  in  the  winter 
time,  and  above  normal  in  the  summer.  Humidity  in 
the  atmosphere  is  generally  expressed  by  arbitrary 
numbers,  lOO  representing  a saturated  condition  of 
the  atmosphere  during  a rain  storm.  Eifty  is  exceed- 
ingly dry,  but  in  the  winter  on  a clear  day  the  humid- 
ity in  the  atmosphere  is  expressed  by  the  figure  30. 
In  such  an  atmosphere  materials  may  be  said  to  be 
anhydrous. 

An  oil  painting  on  wood,  unless  it  be  properly  pro- 
tected either  by  successive  coats  of  paint  on  all  sides, 
or  has  been  previously  soaked  in  oil,  varnish  or  shellac, 
will  warp  in  the  winter  time  with  a curvature  on  the 
side  of  the  painting,  the  reverse  side  being  convex. 


[54] 


Permanent  Painting 


The  result  is  that  the  obverse  or  painted  side  becomes 
cracked. 

It  is  therefore  preferable  to  paint  on  metal  or  on 
the  composition  known  as  academy  board,  which  is  a 
wood  pulp  or  paper  surface  formed  by  cementing  to- 
gether several  thicknesses  of  pasteboard  or  card- 
board, and  applying  a coat  of  oil  paint  on  what  ulti- 
mately becomes  the  obverse  side. 


[55] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  VIII 

RENOVATION  AND  CLEANING 
OF  PICTURES 

There  is  perhaps  no  subject  on  which  so  little 
is  definitely  known  as  the  renovation  or  cleaning 
of  oil  paintings,  for  the  reason  that  no  set  rules 
can  be  given.  It  is  essential  that  anyone  who  at- 
tempts to  clean  a picture  should  have  some  knowledge 
of  the  pigments,  oils  and  varnishes  that  were  used; 
otherwise  good  results  are  not  obtained,  and  in  many 
instances  the  painting  is  ruined.  If  we  attempt  to 
clean  a picture  with  soap  and  water,  which  is  very 
frequently  done,  and  it  happens  to  be  an  old  painting 
of  the  tempera  type,  soap  and  water  would  dissolve  the 
entire  picture  with  ruinous  results,  but  if  the  painting 
is  made  on  wood  or  metal  such  preliminary  clean- 
ing can  be  resorted  to,  but  no  strong  friction  or  at- 
trition should  take  place  on  account  of  the  danger  of 
abrasion.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  attempted  to 
clean  a picture  with  wood  alcohol  and  turpentine,  and 
it  were  painted  with  the  same  colors  and  media  used 
by  Vibert,  and  recommended  by  him,  the  picture 
would  be  almost  instantly  dissolved  and  effaced  from 


[56] 


Permanent  Painting 


its  canvas.  It  therefore  becomes  imperative  to  ex- 
periment on  the  edge  of  a picture,  preferably  that 
part  which  is  usually  protected  by  the  frame,  with 
various  solvents,  in  order  to  determine  exactly  what 
will  take  place. 

As  far  as  the  remedy  for  cracks  is  concerned,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter  on  “The  Cause  of 
the  Cracking  of  Pictures ; Its  Prevention  and  Remedy.” 
Therefore,  this  chapter  will  only  deal  with  renovation, 
and  it  is  assumed  that  the  person  who  attempts  to 
clean  a painting  is  familiar  with  the  materials  used, 
and  inasmuch  as  perhaps  ninety-nine  paintings  out 
of  one  hundred  that  look  like  oil  paintings  are  oil 
paintings,  the  remedies  given  by  the  author  are  for 
this  class  of  pictures  entirely. 

The  first  essential  is  to  determine  the  mount,  whether 
it  is  wood,  academy  board  or  canvas.  If  it  is  can- 
vas, two  courses  may  be  pursued ; first,  paint  the  back 
of  the  picture  (see  page  41),  or  second,  mount  the 
canvas  with  a mixture  of  white  lead  and  Venice  tur- 
pentine on  another  canvas.  There  are  a large 
number  of  chemical  solvents  which  remove  old 
varnish,  but  these  should  only  be  used  by  a 
skilled  operator.  The  most  important  of  these  chem- 
ical solvents  are  acetone,  benzine,  naphtha,  benzol, 
amyl  acetate,  amyl  alcohol  (fusel  oil),  ethyl 
alcohol  (grain  alcohol),  terpineol,  methyl  alcohol 
(wood  alcohol),  and  various  mixtures  of  these  sub- 
stances. The  least  harmful  and  the  weakest  is  or- 


[571 


Permanent  Painting 


dinary  benzine,  such  as  is  used  for  cleaning  gloves  and 
garments,  but  it  is  not  sufficiently  strong  to  dissolve 
old  dried  cracked  varnish.  At  the  same  time,  a solvent 
which  is  strong  enough  to  dissolve  cracked  varnish 
may  likewise  be  strong  enough  to  destroy  the  painting 
itself.  Whether  the  picture  is  varnished  or  not,  or- 
dinary wood  alcohol  is  taken  either  on  a clean  cot- 
ton rag  or  a sponge,  and  lightly  rubbed  in  one  cor- 
ner. If  it  be  varnished,  the  wood  alcohol  wi'l 
very  likely  dissolve  the  varnish  without  touching 
the  painting,  but  if  there  is  any  difficulty  in  dissolving 
the  varnish,  a mechanical  mixture  of  turpentine  and 
wood  alcohol  would  have  to  be  used,  and  as  a general 
rule  this  will  take  off  all  the  varnish.  Forcible  abra- 
sion must  never  be  resorted  to,  for  any  wet  rag  will, 
as  a rule,  take  off  some  of  the  paint.  The  dried  lin- 
seed oil  or  other  drying  oil  film  is  not  soluble  in  tur- 
pentine, but  is  attacked  by  wood  alcohol  after  pro- 
longed use.  Therefore,  if  pure  turpentine  will  cleanse 
a picture,  it  is  wise  to  let  it  go  at  that,  and  as  a gen- 
eral rule,  assuming  always  that  the  picture  is  an  oil 
painting,  a stiff  brush  will  very  frequently  aid  in 
cleansing  almost  every  part  of  a picture  without  the 
addition  of  wood  alcohol,  so  that  we  have  here  only 
two  re-agents  which  are  necessary.  It  is  necessary  to 
warn  everyone  not  to  try  the  so-called  paint  removers, 
benzol  or  carbon  tetrachloride  mixtures  which  are 
sold,  because  in  many  instances  the  use  of  these  ma- 
terials is  very  harmful  because  the  solvent  action  is 


[58] 


Permanent  Painting 


entirely  too  great.  Ordinary  naphtha  or  gasoline,  such 
as  is  used  for  cleaning  gloves,  can  be  very  safely  recom- 
mended, because  its  solvent  action  is  not  as  great  as 
that  of  turpentine  and  wood  alcohol,  so  that,  with  the 
aid  of  these  three  materials,  almost  any  varnish  can  be 
removed,  and  any  adherent  foreign  substance  easily 
washed  off. 

The  use  of  soap  and  water  is  recommended  by  many, 
but  this  is  always  more  or  less  dangerous  unless  the 
soap  is  absolutely  neutral.  It  always  finds  its  way  into 
cracks,  is  absorbed  by  the  canvas  and  the  under- 
lying  paint,  so  that  in  many  instances  a painting  be- 
comes so  badly  buckled  that,  even  though  it  is  cleaned, 
the  cracks  and  defects  are  magnified.  (Great  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  use  a soap  which  is  alkaline.  The 
soaps  which  are  neutral  are  principally  the  shaving 
soaps.  Ivory  Soap,  and  genuine  castile  soap).  The 
soap  may  be  mixed  with  tepid  water  and  applied  with 
a sponge  to  the  surface  of  the  painting,  thereby  re- 
moving the  thickened  dust  and  dirt  from  its  surface. 
An  application  of  this  kind  will  seldom,  if  ever,  do 
any  harm,  except  on  a painting  which  is  badly  cracked, 
and  where  water  is  liable  to  soak  into  the  canvas  and 
swell  it,  or  where  the  painting  is  based  on  an  aqueous 
mixture. 

Colors  which  have  become  darkened  with  age  or 
affected  by  the  sulphur  fumes  of  the  atmosphere,  like 
flake  white,  and  English  or  chrome  vermilion,  can 
only  be  properly  renovated  if  the  surface  is  abraded. 


[59] 


Permanent  Painting 


and  this  can  be  frequently  accomplished  by  means 
of  a ball  made  of  the  inside  of  a fresh  loaf  of  rye 
bread.  The  ball  is  gently  rubbed  on  the  picture  after 
it  has  been  cleaned  with  soap  and  water,  and  this  is 
to  be  done  in  a good  light.  The  rubbing  given  by 
means  of  the  ball  of  bread  will  remove  the  outer  layer 
and  bring  the  color  up  to  its  original  brilliancy. 

It  is  essential  that  experiments  be  tried  on  a very 
small  part,  preferably  in  a corner  or  on  an  edge  of  the 
picture  with  various  solvents,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  any  harm  would  be  done  or  not.  After  wash- 
ing a picture  it  may  be  rubbed  with  a clean  woolen 
rag  which  has  been  dipped  in  pure  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, for  spirits  of  turpentine  will  very  often  dissolve 
a varnish  like  mastic  or  damar  but  will  not  attack  the 
dry  linseed  oil  film  of  the  painting  beneath.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  benzine.  A mixture  of  benzine  and 
turpentine  will  frequently  do  no  harm,  but  its  appli- 
cation must  always  be  followed  by  washing  with  tur- 
pentine alone.  If  thick  films  of  varnish  still  remain, 
and  are  unattacked,  they  had  better  be  left  alone  and 
the  entire  picture  re-varnished  with  a harmless  medium 
like  damar  or  mastic  varnish. 

The  use  of  stale  bread  handled  as  an  eraser,  or  the 
use  of  soft  rubber  should  not  be  resorted  to,  provided 
turpentine,  benzine  or  wood  alcohol  will  remove  the 
surface  dirt  and  varnish.  Any  form  of  abrasion  may 
become  a menace  for  the  obvious  reason,  that,  if  on 
a flesh  color  madder  lake  was  used  as  a glaze,  it  takes 


[60] 


Permanent  Painting 


very  little  rubbing  to  remove  the  one  one-thousandth 
of  an  inch  of  madder  lake  which  has  been  applied  for 
a given  effect,  and  which  when  removed  leaves  a 
ghastly  result. 

Paintings  that  have  turned  yellow  with  age  are  best 
treated  by  first  placing  them  in  the  bright  sunlight  for 
two  or  three  days  before  the  application  or  washing 
with  turpentine.  In  many  instances  where  a brilliant 
sky  blue  has  turned  to  a dirty  olive  color,  the  sun 
will  bring  back  much  of  the  pristine  brilliancy,  and 
the  rubbing  with  turpentine  and  a small  percentage 
of  wood  alcohol  will  bring  out  the  colors  sometimes 
more  brilliantly  than  they  were  on  the  day  that  they 
were  applied. 

Where  sulphur  fumes  have  decomposed  the  lead 
color  and  formed  a brownish  result,  chemists  have 
recommended  the  use  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  and 
while  this  may  be  theoretically  the  proper  method  to 
pursue,  it  is  not  necessary,  and  sometimes  dangerous, 
for  the  reason  that  even  though  peroxide  of  hydrogen 
will  bring  back  flake  white  and  chrome  yellow  to 
their  original  color,  it  may  bleach  an  adjacent  lake 
beyond  redemption,  and  as  these  sulphur  de-composi- 
tions of  color  are  usually  on  the  surface,  the  wood 
alcohol  and  turpentine  treatment  with  very  slight  abra- 
sion, will  produce  all  the  results  necessary.  The 
cleaning  and  renovation  of  pictures  in  the  hands  of 
an  intelligent  person  is  not  a very  difficult  problem, 
but  it  is  very  easy  to  spoil  any  good  painting  by  the 


[61] 


Permanent  Painting 


use  of  nostrums  and  recipes  which  are  destructive  in 
their  effect. 

Very  often  a good  picture  assumes  a bluish  haze 
commonly  called  “bloom,”  which  remains  on  it  for 
years.  It  is  due  largely  to  the  absorption  of  moisture 
by  the  varnish  itself,  and  can  easily  be  removed  by 
a gentle  application  of  two  or  three  coats  of  turpen- 
tine, each  successively  wiped  off  and  then  finally  var- 
nished with  a good  hard  varnish  like  amber  or  a 
mixture  of  amber,  mastic  and  damar.  Paintings  that 
have  been  glazed  with  asphaltum  must,  however,  be 
handled  differently,  for  in  the  chapter  on  the  “As- 
phaltum and  Bitumen,”  it  will  be  noted  that  as- 
phaltum becomes  darker  with  exposure  rather  than 
lighter,  due  to  the  liberation  of  carbon.  This  can  be 
almost  invariably  removed  by  slight  rubbing  with 
turpentine  and  benzine,  but  inasmuch  as  it  evidently 
was  the  artist’s  original  intention  to  produce  a different 
color  effect  by  means  of  this  glazing,  the  picture  will 
have  a totally  different  tone  value  and  effect  when  the 
smut  remaining  from  the  asphaltum  is  removed,  and 
the  restoration  of  a picture  of  this  kind  should  be 
given  to  some  painter  for  re-glazing  after  the  smutty 
residue  of  the  asphaltum  bitumen  is  thoroughly  washed 
off. 

After  a picture  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
bleached  by  means  of  sunlight,  it  is  essential  to  var- 
nish it  immediately.  Two  coats  of  thin  varnish  prop- 
erly dried,  particularly  where  the  second  coat  is  ap- 


[62] 


- M; 


Photo-micrograph  of  cracks  invisible  to  the  naked  eye 
showing  encysted  matter  and  fissures. 


-iiwt**-.  >■  vii>'-<o»'iiiWiwqwrriMi»iai>  ’•og.’OMtwaiepi 


'^"nnaiienr  Painting 


■ ; ujTs  and  recipes  which  are  destructive  in 

■'hei-"  eltect. 

Verv  often  a good  picture  assumes  a bluish  haze 
i ;:  ■.:u)only  called  “bloom,”  which  remains  on  it  for 
a*..,.  It  is  due  largely  to  the  absorption  of  moisture 
h’.  the  varnish  itself,  and  can  easily  be  removed  by 
. geuile  aj;niication  of  two  or  Uirce  coats  of  turpen- 
t:ach  success’ '.-cly  wiped  off  apd  tlnm  finally  var- 
"Mi.Mi  v/ith  a 1^00'!  bard  varnish  and.er  or  a. 
of  amber,  and  damar.  Paintings  that' 

N.;.n  gpjred  with  a-.ohc  iouu  must,  however,  be 
,:o‘-  ‘■■cc.rcnsd.  foi  j:  •.  nartC’*  on  the  “As- 

; — . 1 . W'l;  '•>«'  taited  that  as- 

. , .’''-.cs  'arker  w>»h  ■ • y-xure  rather  than 

c ••  lo  the  liberation  of  ' U>n.  This  can  be 

■r.  • : . .'a  ■ iably  removed  by  sliglu  rubbing  with 

■ O'-  • - ,;v:  benzine,  but  inasiuuvh  it  c-.  idently 

. • dc  . vriginai  udent-OiV  to  c;>ti"cc  different 
. . • i.v  means  or  rsn?.  edemg.  tic  -litre  will 
■ • ‘ ;;  ; Cady  different  tone  vaJin-  and  eFcci  when  the 
' remaining  from  the  a^phalUun  ir  cranoved,  and 
*c..  restoration  o;  a picture  of  this  kind  should  be 
to  some  painter  for  re-gla/iuy  o e smutty 

:'ov  of  the  asplialtum  bituu.cr  ■ o ; -ighly  washed 


iraslmt  'a'ltlktdiri  p.slotn'i  ib'bfq1ciiko‘t5i^-'6foilP*^' 

bitn -^5innf  hsl«'fjVi5’Sni'<foitz 

L. ) coats  ot  ,gfnishprop- 

V vIk'T':  il'-''  -cond  coat  is  ap- 


Permanent  Painting 


plied  after  the  first  coat  is  thoroughly  dry,  is  by  far 
preferable  to  the  application  of  one  heavy  coat  of 
varnish. 


[63] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  SCHOOL  OE  IMPRESSIONISM 

From  time  immemorial  painters  have  depicted 
scenes  as  they  saw  them.  A blue  sky  was  painted 
with  a mixture  of  white  and  blue.  A sunset  of 
yellow  and  orange  was  painted  with  yellow  and  a 
mixture  of  yellow  and  red.  The  principle  upon  which 
all  painting  is  executed  is  that  there  are  three  primary 
pigments,  red,  yellow  and  blue,  which,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  white  and  black,  furnish  all  the  tints  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  any  given  shade,  or  mix- 
ture of  complementary  colors,  so  that  if  a green  is 
desired,  yellow  and  blue  may  be  mixed,  and  if  a light 
green  is  wanted,  white  is  added,  and  if  a dark  green 
is  wanted  either  more  blue  or  black  is  added. 

Without  going  into  the  discussion  of  the  physics 
of  this  subject,  it  may  be  accepted  that  the  result  of 
the  mixture  of  two  pigments  is  a subtractive  phenom- 
euon.  In  other  words,  when  yellow  and  blue  are 
mixed,  the  yellow  and  the  blue  are  simply  subtracted 
from  the  white  light  which  falls  on  them  with  the  re- 
sult that  green  is  obtained,  and  carrying  out  this  theory 
still  further,  if  red,  yellow  and  blue  are  mixed  in  their 
proper  proportions,  each  of  these  colors  is  subtracted 


[64] 


Permanent  Painting 


from  the  white  light  with  the  result  that  a pigment  is 
obtained  which  produces  an  approach  to  black,  and 
black  is  regarded  as  a minus  or  zero  quantity. 

In  the  blending  of  light  we  have  the  opposite  effect, 
so  that  when  we  take  three  colored  lights,  or  allow  the 
rays  which  pass  through  sheets  of  glass  composed 
of  scarlet,  green  and  violet,  to  impinge  upon  each 
other,  we  do  not  obtain  a subtractive  color  but  an 
additive  color ; that  is,  these  three  colors  falling  upon 
the  same  point  form  white.  In  other  words,  the  sum 
total  of  the  colored  rays  of  scarlet,  green  and  violet 
when  added  together  are  white,  so  that  we  have  the 
phenomenon  that  the  primary  pigments  mixed  to- 
gether form  black,  and  the  primary  color  sensations 
form  white,  and  that  the  primary  color  sensations 
are  not  identical  with  the  primary  colors  but  lie  be- 
tween or  adjacent  to  the  primary  colors  of  the  spec- 
trum. That  is,  the  color  sensations  are  scarlet,  green 
and  violet,  while  the  primary  colors  are  red,  yellow 
and  blue.  The  spectrum,  as  is  well  known,  is  com- 
posed of  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo  and 
violet.  The  pigments  may  always  be  expressed  in  the 
form  of  paint  and  the  color  sensations  may  always  be 
produced  by  light. 

The  Lumiere  Bros.,  of  Lyons,  France,  having 
worked  upon  the  theory  of  the  primary  color  sensa- 
tions, developed  the  now  well  known  process  of  color 
photography.  They  arranged  close  together  colored 
starch  grains  tinted  with  transparent  dyes,  so  that 


[65] 


Permanent  Painting 


when  these  starch  grains  are  viewed  by  transmitted 
light  it  is  impossible  to  discern  the  scarlet  from  the 
green  or  the  violet,  the  result  being  that  the  mixture 
produces  what  we  call  “white  light.”  In  photograph- 
ing a yellow  flower,  and  examining  the  yellow  under 
the  microscope  we  find  that  it  is  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  scarlet  and  green.  True  impressionistic 
painting  is  based  upon  this  phenomena  with  the  prop- 
er modifications  for  the  obvious  reason  that  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  for  any  painter  to  put  such  small 
dots  or  points  of  pigments  of  green  and  violet  so  that 
when  viewed  at  a distance  they  appear  sky  blue,  and 
yet  when  we  take  green  and  violet  light,  or  green  and 
violet  microscopic  particles  so  small  that  the  eye  can- 
not deferentiate,  the  resulting  color  is  sky  blue,  and 
not  a mixture  which  the  painter  would  expect  it  to 
be,  because,  as  has  been  already  explained,  the  mix- 
ture of  pigments  is  subtractive  and  the  mixture 
of  light  and  light  sensations  is  additive.  If,  there- 
fore, on  a gray  or  neutral  ground,  a painter  will  paint 
small  patches  of  alternate  pale  green  and  pale  violet 
and  such  a composite  is  viewed  from  a distance  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  or  more,  the  resulting  impression 
will  be  sky  blue.  True  impressionistic  painting  is 
based  entirely  upon  such  phenomena. 

There  is  one  other  influence  which  causes  impression- 
ism, which  is  due  entirely  to  a defect  of  the  eye.  Those 
who  have  been  in  a photographic  dark  room,  which  is 
illuminated  entirely  by  a red  light,  will  have  often  no- 


[66] 


Permanent  Painting 


deed  that  upon  emerging  from  the  dark  room  into 
the  white  light,  everything  appeared  green.  This  is 
caused  by  the  fact  that  in  the  first  place,  the  physical 
power  of  the  nerve-fibrils  of  the  eye  which  are  sensi- 
tive to  red  are  temporarily  exhausted,  and  the  eye 
sees  only  the  complementary  color  which  is  green.  If, 
therefore,  a brilliant  red  sunset  is  painted  by  means  of 
the  massive  application  of  scarlet  and  red,  the  foliage 
may  be  gray,  but  after  viewing  it  steadily  for  a few 
moments  it  appears  perfectly  green,  so  that  we  have 
a green  impression  where  it  really  does  not  exist,  be- 
cause the  eye  complements  one  color  for  another. 

Unfortunately  the  theory  of  impressionistic  paint- 
ing has  not  been  properly  disseminated  and  not  prop- 
erly taught,  so  that  we  have  some  of  the  vilest  and 
most  impossible  attempts  at  impressionistic  painting 
which  are  based  not  upon  science,  but  upon  the  fads 
which  exist.  Human  beings  are  prone  to  say  that 
they  admire  a daub  because  some  one  else  who  is  sup- 
posed to  know  has  pronounced  it  good,  when  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  possesses  no  merit  whatever,  and  its 
entire  workmanship  is  so  crude  and  so  impossible  that 
it  would  make  little  or  no  difference  even  if  it  were 
hung  upside  down. 

There  is  a remarkable  future  for  true  impression- 
istic painting,  but  there  is  no  future  and  no  “raison 
d’etre”  for  the  impossible  daubs  which  masquerade 
under  the  name  of  impressionistic  painting,  and  if  a 
painter  will  study  the  theory  as  propounded  by  Ducos 


[67] 


Permanent  Painting 


Dunaron,  which  is  not  very  difficult  to  learn,  and  will 
study  the  chemistry  of  light  as  propounded  by  Vogel 
and  Rood,  he  or  she  will  be  able  with  a little  practice 
to  master  the  new  branch  of  the  art  which  is  coupled 
with  a science.  The  danger  of  applying  masses  of 
paint  in  promontory  patches  which  are  likely  to  dry 
rapidly  and  crack  or  peel  have  their  own  significance, 
for  impressionistic  painting  may  be  plastic,  but  its 
plasticity  should  really  be  produced  by  means  of  light 
and  shade  effects. 


[68] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  X 
VOLATILE  SOLVENTS 

The  two  oldest  solvents  known  are  turpentine  and 
lavender  oil,  but  from  the  data  at  hand,  it  is 
very  likely  that  lavender  oil  was  known  many 
centuries  before  turpentine.  Chemically,  lavender  oil 
is  analogous  to  turpentine,  in  fact,  it  is  a species  of 
turpentine  containing  an  aromatic  ingredient.  Laven- 
der oil  is  not  used  at  present  by  oil  painters  to  any  great 
extent,  but  turpentine  is  largely  used. 

Vibert  was  the  first  great  painter  to  recommend  the 
use  of  benzine  as  a diluent  for  paint,  and  on  this  sub- 
ject much  is  to  be  said.  Vibert  did  not  believe  in  the 
use  of  linseed  oil,  but  used  a resin  varnish  reduced 
with  benzine.  Benzine  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than 
the  same  material  of  lower  gravity  as  what  we  know 
under  the  name  of  gasolene,  petroleum  essence,  pe- 
troleum spirits,  or  naphtha,  and  is  identical  in  chemical 
composition  with  the  material  used  as  a motive  power 
in  automobiles.  There  is  another  material  which  is 
spelled  with  an  “e,”  “benzene,”  whereas  the  petroleum 
essence  is  spelled  with  an  “i,”  benzine.  The  chemical 
name  for  benzene  is  benzol,  but  this  is  never  to  be 
recommended  for  oil  painting,  as  its  solvent  power 


[69] 


Permanent  Painting 


is  much  too  great.  If  benzol  (benzene)  were  used 
by  a painter  as  a diluent  over  a freshly  painted  sur- 
face, it  would  dissolve  the  work  of  yesterday.  For 
the  purposes  of  uniformity,  I shall  refer  to  petroleum 
spirits  as  naphtha,  which  is  the  name  by  which  it  is 
best  known  in  America.  It  has  the  advantage  over 
turpentine  that  it  evaporates  much  more  rapidly,  and 
leaves  no  residue,  nor  does  it  exert  any  drying  influ- 
ence by  itself. 


[70] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XI 
PICTURE  VARNISHES 

There  are  on  the  market  no  less  than  nine 
different  varnishes  sometimes  sold  under  fan- 
ciful names,  out  of  which  only  three  are  rec- 
ommended. The  varnishes  used  are  damar,  sandarac, 
amber,  copal,  shellac,  spirit  varnish,  oil  copal  and 
mastic.  There  may  be  some  excuse  for  the  use  of 
spirit  varnishes  such  as  shellac  or  sandarac,  which 
are  made  by  dissolving  these  two  gums  in  alcohol,  and 
adding  a small  percentage  of  oil  to  prevent  them  from 
becoming  too  brittle.  The  principal  advantage  in  us- 
ing a spirit  varnish  is  that  it  dries  dust  free  in  lo 
or  15  minutes,  but  inasmuch  as  a spirit  varnish  binds 
very  poorly  on  a linseed  oil  film,  it  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

The  use  of  oil  copal  varnishes,  excepting  where  old 
paintings  are  to  be  imitated,  is  likewise  to  be  depre- 
cated, for  no  copal  varnish  which  is  made  by  fusing- 
copal  or  kauri  gum  with  linseed  oil  retains  its  original 
color,  or  absence  of  color.  If  a piece  of  wood  is 
painted  with  flake  white  or  zinc  white  and  varnished 
with  an  oil  copal  varnish,  it  will  be  found  that  when 
it  is  placed  in  a dark  closet,  it  turns  a dirty  yellow  at 
the  end  of  three  months,  and  if  the  experiment  is 


[71] 


Permanent  Painting 


repeated,  mastic  or  damar  being  used,  it  is  found  that 
no  change  in  color  takes  place.  Therefore,  the  only 
excuse  for  using  an  oil  copal  or  oil  kauri  varnish  is 
that  if  an  old  master  is  copied,  the  effect  of  time  and 
the  yellowing  of  age  can  be  imitated.  This  can  be  best 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  an  oil  varnish,  and  putting 
the  painting  away  in  a dark  corner. 

Mastic  varnish  is  perhaps  the  most  reliable  of  all. 
It  is  made  by  dissolving  gum  mastic  in  spirits  of 
turpentine,  this  solution  taking  place  in  the  cold  and 
with  occasional  shaking.  After  the  solution  has  been 
obtained,  it  is  necessary  to  filter  it  either  through  cot- 
ton or  filter  paper.  When  placed  away  and  allowed 
to  ripen  with  age,  it  produces  a flexible,  glossy  varnish, 
the  life  of  which  is  generally  conceded  to  be  ten  years. 

Perhaps  the  next  in  the  line  is  damar  varnish,  al- 
though this  varnish  is  not  as  flexible  as  mastic,  nor  is 
the  life  of  damar  much  over  five  years,  but  neither  mas- 
tic nor  damar  turn  yellow  with  age  unless  some  drying 
oil  is  added  to  them. 

Bleached  and  orange  shellac  when  dissolved  in 
methyl  or  ethyl  alcohol  have  been  used  for  many  years 
as  picture  varnishes.  Both  of  these  varnishes  arc 
very  opaque  when  made  in  the  usual  way,  so  that  in 
order  to  clarify  them,  they  are  either  filtered  many 
times,  or  quick-silver  vermilion  is  shaken  with  the 
varnishes,  which  after  a day  or  two  carries  down  the 
wax,  and  leaves  a layer  of  clear  varnish.  This  clear 
varnish  is  often  sold  under  the  name  of  French  var- 


[72] 


Permanent  Painting 


nish,  and  is  frequently  mixed  with  either  oil  of  laven- 
der or  oil  of  bergamot  to  produce  flexibility.  If  pro- 
gressive drying  takes  place  under  a varnish  of  this 
type,  surface  cracks  are  likely  to  ensue  for  obvious  rea- 
sons,* and  this  is  true  of  every  varnish  when  applied 
before  a painting  be  properly  dry,  but  more  so  of  the 
quick  and  hard  drying  varnishes. 

There  is  much  varnish  sold  under  the  name  of 
amber  varnish,  which  is  made  of  a fossil  kauri  resin, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  fossil  kauri  resin  is 
superior  to  the  genuine  amber.  It  is  a popular  fallacy 
to  suppose  that  the  ancients  used  amber  varnish,  for 
it  is  very  likely  that  they  called  all  hard  resins  amber. 
True  amber  must  be  so  thoroughly  tempered  with  oil, 
and  is  so  very  difficult  to  fuse,  and  dries  so  very  slow- 
ly, that  its  use  is  not  recommended,  and  where  it  is 
properly  fused  it  is  almost  black  on  account  of  the 
high  heat  necessary  for  melting. 

The  conclusion  to  be  arrived  at  from  the  foregoing 
statements  is  that  only  two  varnishes  should  be  used 
for  ordinary  purposes,  damar  and  mastic,  and  of  the 
two  mastic  is  preferable.  It  can  be  purchased  from 
reliable  firms,  but  where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  its 
purity,  it  can  be  very  easily  made  by  dissolving  a pound 
of  mastic  in  a quart  of  pure  spirits  of  turpentine. 
When  properly  made,  it  has  the  color  of  refined  lin- 
seed oil.  It  is  better  to  use  it  in  a thin  layer  than  to 
make  a thick  solution  and  flow  it  on. 

* See  chapter  on  “The  Cause  of  the  Cracking  of  Paintings  and  the 
Kemedies.” 


[73] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XII 
DRIERS 

The  use  of  driers  in  artistic  painting  is  as 
someone  stated  “an  invention  of  the  devil.” 
Copal  megilp,  which  is  merely  super-saturated 
drying  oil,  has  ruined  many  a good  painting.  There 
are  circumstances  where  the  use  of  a drier  for  ar- 
tistic painting  is  permissible,  such  as,  for  instance, 
interior  wall  decorations  where  freedom  from  dust 
is  essential,  or  for  temporary  painting  for  the  pur- 
poses of  reproduction  for  colored  or  black  and  white 
illustrations  in  books  or  magazines,  but  for  portrait 
or  landscape  painting  where  the  painter  desires  per- 
manence, driers  are  to  be  deprecated. 

The  pigments  themselves  have  peculiar  characteris- 
tics in  this  regard  (see  chapter  on  “The  drying  quali- 
ties of  pigments”),  and  the  painter  may  help  himself 
in  case  he  desires  a painting  to  dry  rapidly,  for  if  he 
has  dark  colors  which  do  not  dry,  all  the  umbers  and 
siennas  are  rapid  driers,  and  if  he  has  light  colors 
which  he  desires  to  dry  he  may  use  in  any  instance 
spirits  of  turpentine  and  sunlight. 

Turpentine  is  an  excellent  drier  and  perfectly  harm- 
less. It  is  quite  true  that  it  flattens  the  color,  but  this 


[74] 


Permanent  Painting 


is  no  objection,  because  the  free  use  of  turpentine  en- 
ables the  painter  to  varnish  his  picture  so  much  the 
sooner,  and  the  use  of  sunlight  is  also  of  great  assist- 
ance, for  we  have  absolute  evidence  that  zinc  white, 
which  is  at  first  a slow  drier,  dries  progressively  un- 
til it  becomes  brittle,  but  may  be  made  to  dry  rapidly 
in  the  beginning  by  simply  exposing  it  to  bright  light. 
Ordinary  zinc  white  when  mixed  with  raw  linseed  oil 
and  placed  in  the  dark,  will  remain  soft  and  wet 
sometimes  as  long  as  ten  days,  yet  on  a bright,  clear 
spring  or  summer  day  when  exposed  to  the  bright  light 
it  will  skin  over  and  dry  in  12  hours.  Care,  how- 
ever, must  always  be  taken  never  to  expose  a fresh 
painting  to  the  heat  of  the  summer  sun,  for  linseed 
oil  before  it  has  begun  to  oxidize  melts  like  wax.  A 
current  of  air  is  likewise  an  effective  drier,  and  some 
painters  use  the  precaution  of  surrounding  a painting 
with  a curtain  of  cheese  cloth  which  keeps  the  dust 
from  it,  but  admits  the  air. 

Driers  decompose  many  pigments.  In  fact,  nearly 
every  one  of  the  lake  colors  is  rapidly  affected  by  the 
action  of  driers.  Madder  lake,  when  mixed  with  a 
lead  or  manganese  drier,  soon  loses  its  pristine  bril- 
liancy. 


[75] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LINSEED  OIL  AND  OTHER  DRYING  OILS 

The  principal  oils  used  by  painters  are  linseed 
oil  and  poppy  oil,  and  occasionally  a little  wal- 
nut oil.  Linseed  oil  in  its  normal  state  is 
the  best  and  the  only  oil  that  a painter  should  use. 
Walnut  oil  is  paler  than  linseed  oil,  but  dries  much 
slower,  while  poppy  oil  is  the  palest  of  all  the  nut 
oils,  and  dries  slower  than  walnut  oil. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  oil  extracted  from  flax-seed  and 
while  there  may  be  a great  deal  of  talk  concerning 
adulterated  oils,  it  must  be  said  in  justice  to  the  man- 
ufacturers of  artists  materials  that  in  no  instance  has 
the  author  ever  found  a single  sample  of  oil  which  was 
labeled  linseed  oil  that  contained  any  impurity  what- 
ever, so  that  it  is  perfectly  safe  for  any  painter  to 
buy  linseed  oil  from  a credited  manufacturer,  and  rest 
secure  in  the  knowledge  that  the  material  is  abso- 
lutely pure. 

The  great  objection,  however,  to  the  purchase  of 
the  majority  of  samples  of  linseed  oil  for  artistic 
painting,  is  that  the  oil  is  generally  refined  or  bleached, 
which  is  a serious  mistake.  Refined  or  bleached  lin- 
seed oil  means  linseed  oil  in  which  the  color  is  hid- 


[76] 


Permanent  Painting 


den,  for  in  the  bleaching  of  linseed  oil  the  color  is  not 
extracted,  it  is  simply  changed  from  a greenish  color 
to  a barely  visible  yellow.  * 

The  point  which  the  author  wishes  to  bring  out  is 
that  the  painter  is  far  better  ofif,  if  he  is  going  to  use 
linseed  oil  for  the  reduction  of  his  pigments,  to  use 
only  raw  linseed  oil  unbleached,  but  well  settled.  If 
the  yellowish  green,  or  the  decidedly  yellow  raw  lin- 
seed oil  is  used,  the  painter  has  the  advantage  in  that 
the  resulting  mixture  with  white  or  light  pigments 
will  never  grow  much  darker,  and  the  highest  tones 
that  are  produced  are  tones  which  the  subsequent 
painting  will  show.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  bleached 
and  almost  colorless  linseed  oil  is  used,  it  cannot  bleach 
any  further,  and  if  the  painting  is  put  away  in  a dark 
place,  it  is  bound  to  grow  darker  on  account  of  the 
generation  of  the  original  coloring  matter  in  the  oil. 
In  other  words,  the  coloring  matter  contained  in 
bleached  oil  reverts  with  many  pigments  like  flake 
white  and  zinc  white  to  its  original  greenish  state. 
Painters  will  do  well  to  bear  this  in  mind  when  paint- 
ing portraits.  The  use  of  bleached  de-colorized  lin- 
seed, poppy,  or  walnut  oils  is  to  be  deprecated  under 
all  circumstances. 

Linseed  oil  dries  much  better  in  the  sunlight  than 
it  does  in  the  dark. 

The  recommendation  which  one  reads  quite  fre- 

* For  a more  scientific  treatment  of  this  subject,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  page  32,  on  the  “Photo-Chemical  Deterioration  of  oil  paint- 
ings.” 


[77] 


Permanent  Painting 


quent.ly,  that  a painter  should  press  linseed  oil  for 
his  own  uses,  is  just  as  ridiculous  in  these  days  as  the 
recommendation  that  a painter  should  grind  his  own 
colors.  Pure  raw  linseed  oil  is  obtainable  in  every 
civilized  community,  and  what  a painter  should  do  is 
to  buy  a gallon  of  it,  place  it  in  small  bottles  which 
are  corked  only  with  a tuft  of  cotton  and  stand  them 
on  a shelf  where  they  may  remain  for  years,  although 
it  is  unwise  for  a painter  to  use  linseed  oil  which  is 
more  than  five  years  old,  because  it  is  likely  to  de- 
compose and  become  what  is  technically  termed  as 
“fatty,”  which  is  equal  to  a kind  of  rancidity  that  we 
generally  associate  with  the  edible  fats.  At  the  same 
time,  linseed  oil  that  has  become  slightly  thickened 
with  age  is  of  great  value  when  mixed  with  the  dry- 
ing  pigments,  such  as  zinc  oxide  and  umber,  because 
a film  is  obtained  which  is  far  more  flexible  than  that 
obtained  with  the  aid  of  driers. 

When  linseed  oil  is  boiled  it  becomes  very  much 
paler  than  it  is  in  its  raw  state.  This  may  sound  like 
a contradiction,  because  nearly  all  boiled  oils  are  dark, 
but  that  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  generally 
boiled  with  a drier  like  lead  or  manganese,  and  these 
metals  go  into  solution  and  form  chemical  soaps 
which  alter  the  color  of  the  oil.  Any  painter  may  try 
the  experiment  himself  by  taking  raw  linseed  oil,  plac- 
ing it  in  a clean  agate-ware  dish,  and  heating  it  slowly 
and  carefully  until  it  begins  to  froth.  On  cooling,  it  will 
be  noted  that  the  oil  is  somewhat  thicker  and  very  much 


[78] 


Permanent  Painting 


paler,  and  in  addition  to  this,  it  dries  in  much  less  time 
than  it  does  in  its  raw  state.  Such  oil  should  never 
be  used  with  the  quick-drying  pigments,  but  may  be 
very  safely  used  with  all  the  blacks,  zinc  white,  per- 
manent white  and  any  of  the  lakes,  but  boiled  linseed 
oil  which  contains  an  added  drier  like  manganese, 
litharge,  zinc  or  lime,  should  never  be  used  with  any 
lake  pigment. 

Linseed  oil  in  the  process  of  drying  goes  through 
a very  peculiar  transformation.  It  generates  both 
carbonic  acid  and  water.* 

Even  assuming  that  every  pigment  is  dry  when  it 
is  ground  with  oil  for  the  painters’  use,  we  can  there- 
fore readily  see  that  if  flake  white  is  mixed  with  an 
ultramarine  blue,  a sulphide  of  lead  is  likely  to  result, 
owing  to  the  generation  of  water  in  the  actual  drying 
of  the  paint  itself. 

The  painter  is  probably  aware  of  the  fact  that  lin- 
seed oil,  poppy  oil  and  walnut  oil,  but  linseed  oil  par- 
ticularly, dry  from  the  top  down.  In  other  words, 
a skin  is  first  formed,  and  underneath  this  skin  the 
paint  remains  soft  sometimes  for  years.  G»'aphite 
and  lampblack  show  this  peculiar  phenomenon  more 
than  any  other  pigment.  Either  of  these  two  will 
dry  on  the  surface,  and  sometimes  a year  afterward 
will  be  soft  and  wet  underneath  the  skin  which  has 
formed. 

* To  those  interested  in  the  chemical  philosophy  of  this  subject, 
the  author  refers  the  reader  to  page  82,  “Chemistry  & Technology  of 
Mixed  Paints,”  by  Maximilian  Toch. 


[79] 


Permanent  Painting 


Linseed  oil  increases  in  bulk  when  it  dries,  which 
means  that  it  does  not  dry  by  evaporation  like  tur- 
pentine, but  dries  by  what  we  know  as  oxidation.  It 
absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  forms  a material 
which  is  known  among  chemists  as  linoxin,  and  linox- 
in  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  dry  linseed  oil  or  ox- 
idized linseed  oil.  A film  of  linseed  oil  paint  in- 
creases in  size  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  seed 
from  which  it  is  made,  from  lo  to  20%,  which  ac- 
counts for  the  wrinkling  which  very  frequently  takes 
place.  To  obviate  this  wrinkling  painters  do  not  add 
additional  oil  to  their  paint,  but  add  turpentine,  or 
benzine. 


[30] 


Photograph  of  an  oil  painting  showing  serious  cracking 
throughout,  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  paint.  Not 
sufficient  sizing  material  had  been  applied  to  the  canvas 
before  the  painting  was  executed,  7vhich  is  evidenced  by 
the  warp  and  woof  of  the  caiwas  shoiving  through  the 
paint. 


' -*| r^tMTTUM— „_. 

^xrmanent  Pain dncr 


1 }r.vT<‘ases  in  bulk  when  it  dries,  which 
d.jes  not  dry  by  evaporation  like  tur- 
; 5’'.  dues  by  what  we  know  as  oxidation.  It 
from  the  air,  and  forms  a material 
d !>  Knovv  H among  chemists  as  linoxin,  and  linox- 
uothmg  more  nor  less  than  drv  Hnvecd  oil  or  ox- 
■i  < !.oxt<'  oil.  A film  of  linsfrri  .oti  paint  in- 
es  in  si?..-  depending  upon  t!ie  of  the  seed 

which  it.  i.s  made,  fn  r.  jo  to  which  ac- 

ir  ;or  the  w’rinkling  v.  bnrh  ;;rv  frequently  takes 
. i'o  obviate  this  wrio-hnp  painters  do  not  add 
"ial  oil  to  then'  paii't,  b n add  turpentine,  or 

ot*. 


aimhmo  ?.,ion9?.  l^uiUuaq  Iro  no  ilqna|olojiq 

»o/i  ,h„nq  3,1)  i,oi)on-m,oa  3,1)  ol  3„b  .l,m,tSi„oa,ll 
3,1)  01  b3ilqq„  „33,1  b0,{  b)h3)l,,„  )„3bi^t,« 

O b30„3b,3’3  a,  ,b„loj  ,b3)„33X3  S„i),tioq  9,1)  9-,obcl 
ii&i,0-„ll  ftm<,K)il8  ?.n(jnD9  3,1)  Ioo-m  b„0  qaivH  3,1) 

.)„i,iq 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  PIGMENTS 
AND  THEIR  DESCRIPTION 

The  pigments  which  are  in  use,  and  a fairly  complete 
list  of  those  found  on  the  market  throughout  the  civ- 
ilized world,  are  as  follows ; 

List  of  Colors 


Alizarin  Crimson 

Brown  Pink 

Alizarin  Orange 

Burnt  Carmine 

Alizarin  Scarlet 

Burnt  Roman  Ochre 

Alizarin  Yellow 

Burnt  Sienna 

Alizarin  Green 

Burnt  Umber 

Alizarin  Carmine 

Cadmium  Yellow 

Alumina  White  or 

Cadmium  Yellow  Pale 

Lake  White 

Caledonian  Brown 

Antwerp  Blue 

Cappah  Brown 

Asphaltum 

Carbon  Black 

Aurelian 

Carmine 

Bistre 

Carmine  Lake 

Bitumen 

Carnation  Lake 

Black  Lead 

Cassel  Earth 

Blue  Black 

Cerulean  Blue 

Blue  Verditer 

Charcoal  Gray 

Bone  Brown 

Chinese  Blue 

Brilliant  Ultramarine 

Chinese  Vermilion 

Blue 

Chinese  White 

Bronze  Green 

Chrome  Greens,  1,2  &3 

Brown  Madder 

Chrome  Orange 

Brown  Lake 

Chrome  Oxide 

Brown  Ochre 

Chrome  Red 

Permanent  Painting 


Cinnabar  Greens,  1,  2 
& 3 

Citron  Yellow 
Cobalt  Blue 
Cobalt  Green 
Cobalt  Violet 
Cologne  Earth 
Constant  White 
Copal  Megilp 
Cork  Black 
Cremnitz  White 
Crimson  Lake 
Crimson  Madder 
Davey’s  Gray 
Deep  Madder 
Emerald  Green 
Extract  of  Vermilion 
Eield’s  Orange,  Ver- 
milion 

Elake  White 
French  Blue 
French  Ultramarine 
French  Vermilion 
French  Veronese  Green 
Foundation  White 
Gallstone 
Gamboge 
Geranium  Lake 
Geranium  Madder 
Gold  Ochre 
Green  Lakes,  2 & 3 
Harrison  Red 
Hooker’s  Green,  1 & 2 
Indian  Lake 


Indian  Purple  (Oil) 

Indian  Purple  (Water) 

Indian  Red 

Indian  Yellow 

Indigo 

Italian  Pink 

Ivory  Black 

Jacqueminot  Madder 

Jaune  Brilliant 

King’s  Yellow  (Oil) 

King’s  Yellow  (Water) 

Lamp  Black 

Leitch’s  Blue 

Lemon  Yellow 

Light  Red 

Madder  Carmine 

Madder  Carmine,  extra 

Madder  Lake 

Magenta 

Malachite  Green 

Mars  Brown 

Mars  Orange 

Mars  Red 

Mars  Violet 

Mars  Yellow 

Mauve 

Mauve  Lake 

Megilp 

Mineral  Gray 

Minium 

Monochrome  Tints 
(warm) 

Monochrome  Tints 
(cool) 


[82] 


Permanent  Painting 


Mummy 

Naples  Yellow  (Oil) 
Naples  Yellow,  Light 
Naples  Yellow,  French 
Naples  Yellow,  Medium 
Naples  Yellow,  Deep 
Naples  Yellow,  Reddish 
Naples  Yellow,  Green- 
ish 

Neutral  Orange 
Neutral  Tint  (Oil) 
Neutral  Tint  (Water) 
New  Blue 
Nottingham  White 
Olive  Green  (Oil) 

Olive  Green  (Water) 
Olive  Lake 
Olive  Madder 
Orange  Madder 
Orange  Mineral 
Orange  Vermilion 
Orient  Madder 
Orpiment 
Oxford  Ochre 
Oxide  of  Chromium, 
Oxide  of  Chromium, 
Transparent 
Payne’s  Gray  (Oil) 
Payne’s  Gray  (Water) 
Permanent  Blue 
Permanent  Green,  Lt. 
Permanent  Green,  Med. 
Permanent  Green,  Deep 
Permanent  Violet 


Permanent  White 
Permanent  Yellow 
Pink  Madder 
Primrose  Aureolin 
Primrose  Yellow 
Prussian  Blue 
Prussian  Brown 
Prussian  Green  (Oil) 
Prussian  Green 
(Water) 

Pure  Scarlet 
Purple  Lake 
Purple  Madder 
Raw  Sienna 
Raw  Umber 
Rembrandt's  Madder 
Roman  Ochre 
Roman  Ochre  (cool) 
Roman  Sepia 
Rose  Doree 
Rose  Lake 
Rose  Madder 
Rubens  Madder 
Sap  Green  (Water) 
Sap  Green  (Oil) 
Scarlet  I.ake 
Scarlet  Madder 
Scarlet  Red 
Scarlet  Vermilion 
Sepia  (Oil) 

Sepia  (Water) 

Silver  White 
Sky  Blue 
Smalt 


[83] 


Permanent  Painting 


Terra  Rose 
Terre  Verte 
Tours  Red 

Tours  Orange  Mineral 
Transparent  Gold 
Ochre 

Tuscan  Red 
Ultramarine  (Genuine) 
Ultramarine  Ash 
Vandyke  Brown 
Vandyke  Madder 
Venetian  Red 
Verdigris 
Vermilion 
Vermilion,  pale 


Verona  Brown 
Veronese  Green 
Violet  Carmine 
Viridian 
Warm  Sepia 
Yellow  Carmine 
Yellow  Lake 
Yellow  Ochre 
Zinc  White 

Zinnober  Green,  light 
Zinnober  Green,  extra 
light 

Zinnober  Green,  Me- 
dium 

Zinnober  Green,  Deep 


Later  I shall  attempt  to  separate  these  pigments  into 
various  classes.  First,  the  pigments  which  can  be 
indiscriminately  mixed  with  each  other,  and  will  not 
interact  and  are  not  affected  by  light.  Second,  pig- 
ments which  alone  are  permanent,  but  which  cannot 
be  mixed  with  each  other.  Third,  pigments  which 
are  fairly  permanent  under  normal  conditions,  but 
not  permanent  when  exposed  to  strong  sunlight. 
Fourth,  pigments  which  are  fugitive,  and  which  should 
under  all  circumstances  be  excluded  from  the  artist’s 
palette,  existing  only  for  the  purpose  of  illustration 
for  half-tone  color  work,  and  for  use  in  illustrations 
in  magazines.  Perhaps  the  only  excuse  for  the  use 
of  the  fugitive  pigments  is  for  the  purpose  just  re- 
ferred to,  but  even  then  every  possible  shade  and 


[84] 


Permanent  Painting 


gradation  of  color  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the 
more  permanent  colors. 


ALIZARIN  COLORS  (RED) 

The  alizarin  colors  are  identical  in  composition  with 
all  the  madder  lakes,  and  up  to  the  last  generation  the 
madder  root  was  specially  cultivated  for  the  purpose 
of  making  a permanent  red  lake.  The  growing  of  the 
madder  plant  and  the  extraction  of  the  color  from 
the  root,  was  a great  industry  in  France.  The  red 
trousers  worn  by  the  French  military  were  dyed  with 
madder,  in  order  to  give  the  proper  impetus  to  this 
industry,  but  with  the  advent  of  the  coal  tar  dyes,  an 
artificial  madder  was  produced  which  is  known  as 
alizarin.  This  is  identical  in  every  respect  with  the 
color  extracted  from  the  root  of  the  plant.  The  botan- 
ical name  of  the  plant  is  Rubia  Tinctorium,  and  as 
such  was  known  to  the  Flemish  and  Italian  painters. 

Alizarin  or  madder  lake  may  be  considered  as  a 
permanent  color  under  certain  conditions.  Franz  Hals 
was  well  aware  of  the  correct  way  in  which  to  use  this 
lake  in  order  to  produce  the  vivid  flesh  tints  of  his 
countrymen.  Rubicond  noses  and  sunburnt  cheeks 
were  portrayed  by  him  in  a manner  which  after  a 
lapse  of  three  centuries  have  shown  that  this  color, 
when  intelligently  used,  is  permanent. 

If  madder  lake  is  used  as  a glaze  over  a color  which 


[85] 


Permanent  Painting 


has  been  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly,  it  will  remain 
permanent,  but  if  madder  or  alizarin  lake  is  mixed 
with  any  mineral  or  metallic  color  such  as  ochre,  lead, 
sienna,  etc.,  a chemical  decomposition  takes  place,  with 
the  result  that  the  lake  is  bleached.  It  is  reasonable 
TO  suppose  that  Rembrandt  did  not  glaze  his  flesh 
paints  in  the  way  that  Franz  Hals  and  Jan  Steen  did, 
as  the  flesh  tints  of  the  Rembrandt’s  of  to-day  are 
more  or  less  bleached.  The  “Anatomy  Lesson’’  in  the 
Hague,  shows  upon  close  examination  that  the  flesh 
tones  of  the  demonstrator  and  the  spectators  have 
suffered  from  exposure  to  light,  very  likely  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  lake  used  in  glazing  was  mixed  with 
the  under-coat.  It  is,  therefore,  reasonable  to  assume 
that  alizarin  or  madder  lakes  should  be  used  as  glaz- 
ing colors  over  a properly  dried  surface.  Alizarin 
or  madder  lakes,  however,  will  not  decompose  when 
mixed  with  various  blacks  such  as  black  lead,  ivory 
black,  lamp  black  and  carbon  black. 

Madder  lake  may  be  mixed  with  any  oxide  of  iron 
color  which  has  been  burnt,  but  may  not  be  mixed  with 
any  raw  iron  color.  For  instance,  madder  or  alizarin 
may  be  mixed  with  Indian  red,  forming  a color  known 
as  Tuscan  red,  which  is  perfectly  permanent.  It  may 
also  be  mixed  with  burnt  sienna,  burnt  ochre,  burnt 
umber,  etc.,  but  is  fugitive  when  mixed  with  raw  ochre, 
raw  sienna  or  raw  umber.  The  chemical  colors  like 
flake  v.diite  (white  lead),  zinc  oxide,  chrome  yellow, 
Naples  yellow  and  chrome  green  all  bleach  it,  but 


[86] 


Permanent  Painting 


colors  like  quick  silver,  vermilion,  cadmium  yellow  and 
all  of  the  blacks  do  not  atfect  it. 

The  safest  way  in  which  to  use  it  is  as  a glaze  over 
a ground  which  is  thoroughly  dry.  Madder  lake  deep- 
ens considerably  when  placed  in  a dark  place,  but  is 
revived  when  subjected  to  bright  sunlight. 


ALIZARIN  YELLOW  AND  GREEN 

These  two  colors  are  taken  as  one,  for  the  reason 
that  both  alizarin  yellow  and  alizarin  green  do  not  ex- 
ist, all  tha  alizarin  colors  up  to  date  being  of  a red 
or  maroon  shade.  The  name,  therefore,  is  a misnomer, 
and  should  not  be  permitted. 

Alizarin  yellow  is  a fairly  permanent  yellow  lake 
made  of  an  aniline  yellow.  There  are,  however,  some 
alizarin  yellows  on  the  market  which  are  made  from 
the  extracts  of  bark  like  quer  citron,  and  these  are  not 
permanent.  The  author  has  made  a yellow  lake  from 
the  paranitraniline  which  is  perfectly  permanent  when 
used  alone,  has  great  brilliancy  and  strength,  but  can- 
not by  any  means  be  called  an  alizarin  yellow. 

The  same  is  true  of  alizarin  green,  which  as  such, 
does  not  exist,  and  all  the  so-called  alizarin  greens  on 
the  market  are  not  permanent,  but  are  green  lakes 
made  from  coal  tar  dyes  which  readily  decompose 
when  they  are  mixed  with  ochre  or  any  one  of  the 
oxide  of  iron  colors.  The  use  of  both  of  these  colors 
is  unwarranted. 


[87] 


Permanent  Painting 


ALUMINA  WHITE  OR  LAKE  WHITE 

This  is  the  hydrated  oxide  of  alumina  which  is 
ground  in  linseed  oil,  and  is  almost  as  transparent  as 
glass.  It  is  simply  used  as  a medium  for  reducing  or 
attenuating  other  pigments  as,  for  instance,  when  it 
is  desirable  to  glaze  with  burnt  sienna,  it  is  of  advan- 
tage to  mix  burnt  sienna  with  alumina,  because  in 
that  way  the  burnt  sienna  assumes  all  the  qualities  of 
a lake  color.  Alumina  is  permanent,  and  is  not  af- 
fected by  other  pigments.  As  however,  the  amount  of 
oil  necessary  to  grind  alumina  into  the  paste  form  is 
very  large,  the  oil  contained  in  the  mixture  is  prone 
to  turn  yellow.  It  has  a variety  of  advantages,  how- 
ever, which  makes  it  exceedingly  useful  and  can  be 
generally  recommended. 


ANTWERP  BLUE 

Antwerp  blue  is  either  a mixture  of  Prussian  blue 
or  Chinese  blue  with  aluminum  hydrate,  in  other  words, 
it  is  a Prussian  blue  reduced  with  a transparent  base, 
and  is  not  to  be  recommended  where  absolute  perma- 
nency is  desired.  Of  itself,  or  when  mixed  with  zinc 
white,  it  produces  very  beautiful  sky  blue  shades,  and 
if  properly  varnished  and  painted  on  a solid  surface, 
such  as  metal  or  wood,  shows  no  change  for  many 
years,  but  when  Antwerp  blue  is  mixed  with  flake 
white  or  zinc  white  and  reduced  with  raw  linseed  oil, 


[88] 


Permanent  Painting 


it  turns  decidedly  green  in  a dark  place,  or  in  a poorly 
lighted  studio,  but  regains  its  brilliant  color  when  ex- 
posed to  sunlight  and  air  again.  It  is  a weak  form  of 
Prussian  blue  used  as  a glaze,  and  is  now  superseded 
by  ultramarine  blue  mixed  with  a transparent  black. 


ASPHALTUM 

This  is  the  same  as  bitumen  and  is  a black  gum,  va- 
rieties of  which  are  found  in  Africa,  Cuba  and  the 
United  States.  It  is  a great  mistake  for  artists’  material 
manufacturers  to  sell  asphaltum  or  bitumen  to  paint- 
ers or  to  carry  it  in  stock,  as  it  is  not  only  worthless, 
but  has  a tendency  to  ruin  a painting  on  which  it  is 
used.  When  mixed  with  other  pigments,  it  retards 
their  drying.  When  u.sed  as  a glazing  color,  it  is 
frequently  a cause  of  so-called  alligator  cracks,  owing 
to  the  unequal  expansion  and  contraction  between  it 
and  the  base  upon  which  it  is  applied,  but  the  worst 
feature  of  it  is  that  when  it  is  exposed  to  sunlight,  it 
decomposes  into  charcoal  and  water,  and  deposits  a 
black  soot  on  the  picture.  To  those  who  are  interested 
in  a scientific  dissertation  on  this  subject,  1 would 
refer  them  to  the  article  on  the  “Influence  of  Sun 
Light  on  Paints,”  Journal,  Society  of  Chemical  In- 
dustry, which  systematically  explains  the  effect  of  light 
on  the  hydro-carbon  compounds,  but  as  this  is  not  a 
work  on  chemistry,  the  scientific  illustrations  will  be 
omitted. 


[89] 


Permanent  Painting 


Asphaltum  or  bitumen  is  harmful  in  every  sense  of 
the  word,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  great 
masters  ever  used  it.  In  Italy  it  was  used  to  a great- 
er extent  than  in  Flanders,  for  there  are  still  many 
old  pictures  to  be  found  in  Italy  which  are  a black 
smudge  with  here  and  there  a faint  trace  of  lighter 
pigment.  This  black  smudge  was  once  a bright  mass 
of  colors  glazed  with  bitumen,  which  can  be  revived  by 
cleaning  carefully  with  methyl  alcohol. 

A glaze  which  is  permanent  can  be  made  in  imita- 
tion of  asphaltum  by  mixing  raw  sienna,  burnt  umber 
and  carbon  black  or  ivory  black. 


AURELIAN 

Aurelian  is  a pigment  that  has  been  introduced  dur- 
ing the  last  generation,  and  is  sometimes  sold  under 
the  name  of  cobalt  yellow.  It  is  a double  nitrite  of 
cobalt  and  potassium.  There  is  a variation  of  opinion 
as  to  its  permanency.  Some  claim  that  it  is  absolutely 
permanent  both  in  water  and  oil,  and  others  claim  that 
it  decomposes  with  a white,  but  from  the  experiments 
made  by  the  author  its  permanence  depends  entirely 
upon  its  purity.  If  the  color  is  thoroughly  washed  by 
the  manufacturer  after  it  is  precipitated  in  order  to 
free  it  from  soluble  salts,  it  may  be  regarded  as  ab- 
solutely permanent,  because  it  is  not  afifected  by  sul- 
phur gases  nor  by  sunlight.  If  the  color  is  impure, 
it  is  very  likely  to  decompose  any  lake  which  may  be 


[90] 


Permanent  Painting 


added  to  it,  and  when  mixed  with  raw  linseed  oil,  it 
loses  its  brilliancy  in  a short  time.  There  are  several 
good  manufacturers  of  this  pigment,  whose  aurelian 
yellow  may  be  used  and  regarded  as  absolutely  perma- 
nent. For  safety’s  sake,  it  is  advisable  to  use  it  alone 
and  not  to  mix  it  with  any  lake  pigment.  Lake  glazed 
over  it,  after  it  is  perfectly  dry,  does  not  affect  either 
the  lake  or  the  aurelian. 

AURORA  YELLOW  (See  Cadmium  Colors) 
BISTRE 

This  is  a species  of  lamp  black,  which  is  the  soot 
from  the  smoke  of  pitch  pine.  In  the  condensation,  a 
small  percentage  of  resin  is  admixed  which  probably 
accounts  for  the  brownish  color  of  this  soot.  It  may 
be  regarded  as  permanent,  but  when  mixed  with  oil 
dries  very  badly.  It  is  a deep  brown,  but  it  has  been 
asserted  that  better  or  more  permanent  effects  can  be 
obtained  by  a mixture  of  lamp  black  and  umber.  It  is 
used  as  a water  color  as  well  as  an  oil  color. 

BITUMEN  (See  Asphaltum) 

BLACK  LEAD 

This  pigment  is  composed  principally  of  graphite, 
which  is  the  material  used  for  making  lead  pencils. 
It  is  a form  of  carbon,  and  varies  in  purity  from 
6o%  to  90%,  the  other  constituents  being  silica  and 


[91] 


Permanent  Painting 


clay.  Black  lead  is  popularly  known  under  the  name 
of  “stove  polish.”  It  has  a metallic  steel  gray  sheen, 
both  when  used  as  a water  color  and  as  an  oil  color,  and 
gives  delicate  grays  which  are  free  from  blue.  It  is 
one  of  the  permanent  colors,  and  has  absolutely  no 
effect  whatever  upon  any  color  with  which  it  may  be 
mixed.  It  is  an  exceedingly  slow  drier,  and  when  it 
does  dry  it  remains  soft,  so  that  care  must  be  exer- 
cised not  to  use  it  too  thickly,  for,  after  it  skins  over 
and  dries  from  the  top,  the  interior  may  remain  soft 
for  years.  In  making  a gray  by  mixing  with  zinc 
white,  it  has  the  advantage  of  neutralizing  the  even- 
tual brittleness  produced  by  the  zinc,  and  may  be 
regarded  under  every  circumstance  as  a perfectly  soft 
and  permanent  pigment.  The  hard  drying  colors  such 
as  zinc,  red  lead,  orange  mineral,  nmber,  etc.,  should 
be  used  with  great  care  over  black  lead,  for  the  ob- 
vious reason  that  cracks  are  bound  to  result,  owing 
to  the  non-equal  tension  in  drying.  * 


BLUE  BLACK 

This  is  a species  of  vine  black  and  charcoal,  and 
derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  when  mixed  with 
white,  it  produces  a very  pleasing  bluish  gray,  which 
is  absolutely  permanent.  Blue  black  is  an  excellent 
drier,  in  fact,  so  much  so,  that  the  pigment  will  some- 
times dry  up  entirely  in  the  tube.  Blue  black  is  slight- 

* See  chapter  on  the  Cracking  of  Oil  Paintings,  p.  40. 


[92] 


Permanent  Painting 


ly  alkaline,  which  accounts  for  its  excellent  drying 
properties,  and  likewise  accounts  for  its  livering  in  the 
tube.  When  once  it  has  livered,  it  cannot  very  well  be 
restored  to  its  original  condition.  There  are,  however, 
a number  of  good  lamp  blacks  on  the  market  sold  in 
tube  form,  which  are  as  fine,  if  not  finer,  than  blue 
black  and  produce  practically  the  same  shade. 

Of  the  various  samples  examined,  no  two  manufac- 
turers appear  to  use  the  same  material.  In  one  in- 
stance, the  author  found  the  pigment  to  be  composed 
of  vine  black,  which  is  a species  of  charcoal.  In  an- 
other instance  a very  pure  lamp  black  appeared  to  be 
the  base,  which  when  mixed  with  white  tinted  out  to 
a relatively  blue  gray,  and  in  a third  instance,  it  ap- 
peared to  be  a mixture  of  charcoal  tinted  with  Prus- 
sian blue.  All  three  of  these  pigments  may  be  re- 
garded as  permanent,  for  very  particular  uses  in  paint- 
ing, particularly  in  landscape  painting  for  producing 
som.bre  sky  effects. 

Blue  black  may  be  mixed  with  zinc  in  any  propor- 
tion, and  while  it  is  not  so  slow  a drier  as  graphite 
or  lamp  black,  it  has  relatively  the  same  effect  on 
zinc  and  prevents  it  from  becoming  brittle. 


BLUE  VERDITER 

Blue  verditer  is  the  hydrated  oxide  of  copper,  but 
inasmuch  as  it  is  made  by  precipitating  a copper  so- 
lution with  lime,  it  is  not  always  permanent  in  the 


[93] 


Permanent  Painting 


tubes,  for  it  has  the  property  of  combining  with  the 
oil  and  stiffening  into  a livery  compound.  It  is  quite 
a defective  color,  and  should  not  be  used  for  perma- 
nent painting,  for  the  reason  that  hydrogen  sulphide 
blackens  it  and  sulphuric  acid  bleaches  it,  and  when  it 
contains  traces  of  lime  it  dries  exceedingly  hard  and 
is  liable  to  crack.  * 

The  same  shade  may  be  obtained  by  mixing  such 
permanent  pigments  as  ultramarine,  zinc  oxide  and 
hydrated  chrome  oxide,  these  three  being  unaffected 
by  sulphureted  hydrogen. 

BONE  BROWN 

This  is  one  of  the  pigments  which  has  no  license  to 
exist.  When  bones  are  fully  calcined  they  produce 
a very  desirable  black  color,  but  when  bones  are  partly 
calcined  the  color  is  brown,  owing  to  the  production 
of  what  is  known  as  bone  pitch.  In  chemical  compo- 
sition, bone  pitch  is  the  same  as  asphaltum,  and  this 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  bone  brown  is  a very  bad 
drier  and  is  not  permanent  to  light.  The  same  effects 
may  be  produced  by  the  use  of  many  other  more 
durable  colors.  Bone  brown  should  be  stricken  from 
the  list  of  artists’  colors. 

BRILLIANT  ULTRAMARINE  BLUE 

Brilliant  ultramarine  blue  is  assumed  to  be  the 
artificial  ultramarine  blue  which  is  made  by  calcining 


[94] 


Permanent  Painting 


sulphur,  clay  and  sulphate  of  soda.  It  is  permanent 
to  light  when  used  alone  and  when  used  with  certain 
of  the  colors  upon  which  it  has  no  influence,  and  will 
be  properly  described  under  ultramarine  blue. 

BRONZE  GREEN 

This  is  a mixture  of  orange  chrome  yellow  and 
Prussian  blue.  When  pure,  it  is  not  affected  by  sun- 
light, and  when  properly  varnished,  and  protected  is 
unaffected  by  sulphureted  hydrogen. 

There  is,  however,  no  reason  why  bronze  green 
should  be  made  from  chrome  yellow,  as  where  possible 
all  lead  colors  should  be  avoided  by  the  painter.  Cad- 
mium yellow  and  Prussian  blue  make  a very  perma- 
nent bronze  green  which  is  permanent  but  more  ex- 
pensive than  the  chrome  yellow  pigment. 


BROWN  MADDER 

Brown  madder  differs  nowadays  from  the  brown 
madder  made  50  years  ago.  Formerly  the  madder 
brown  was  prepared  from  madder  root,  and  tinted  with 
a solid  pigment,  such  as  burnt  ochre  or  burnt  sienna 
Brown  madder  is  now  made  in  the  same  chemical 
manner  in  which  the  red  madder  is  made,  with  the 
exception  that  the  color  is  practically  spoiled  in  the 
making  by  the  addition  of  iron  oxide,  because  inas- 
much as  iron  compounds  exert  a continuous  reducing 


[95] 


Permanent  Painting 


action  on  the  pigment,  brown  madder  soon  loses  its 
brilliancy  and  is  destroyed.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a 
fairly  permanent  color,  but  can  be  replaced  in  several 
ways,  and  is  therefore  not  to  be  recommended. 

All  the  cjualities  of  this  pigment  are  described  under 
the  head  of  alizarin  or  madder  lake.  When  mixed 
with  a metallic  color  like  lead,  zinc  or  iron  it  is  not 
permanent.  When  used  alone  and  made  of  madder 
lake  and  lamp  black  it  is  permanent. 

BROWN  LAKE 

This  may  be  any  red  or  maroon  lake  of  an  organic 
nature  either  calcined  the  same  as  burnt  carmine  or 
saddened  by  the  admixture  of  an  iron  compound. 
When  made  in  the  latter  manner  it  is  permanent  for 
two  or  three  years.  When  made  in  the  former  manner 
it  is  very  fugitive. 

Brown  lake  made  by  mixing  madder  lake  and  burnt 
amber  is  permanent  and  dries  very  well.  Some  paint- 
ers make  a perfect  brown  by  mixing  lamp  black,  cad- 
mium and  madder  lake.  This  mixture  is  permanent, 
but  has  the  disadvantage  of  drying  very  slowly. 


BROWN  OCHRE 

Brown  ochre  is  similar  in  composition  to  all  the 
other  ochres,  being  a form  of  clay  tinted  naturally  with 
iron  ores  or  the  hydrated  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  known 


[96] 


Permanent  Painting 


also  under  the  name  of  Oxford  ochre,  and  sometimes 
deep  Roman  ochre,  and  when  used  alone  is  permanent, 
but  when  mixed  with  any  white  pigment  it  turns  con- 
siderably darker  after  a lapse  of  several  years. 

Brown  ochre  must  never  be  used  with  any  lake  color 
because  the  iron  oxide  in  it  has  a destructive  effect.  It 
is  a good  drier,  and  when  properly  thinned  out  may  be 
used  as  a glaze.  It  is  analogous  to  raw  sienna,  but  is 
considerably  weaker  in  tinting  power. 

A very  dark  ochre  may  contain  nearly  40%  hy- 
drated oxide  of  iron,  whereas  French  ochres  contain 
only  20%,  and  are  therefore  nearer  in  composition 
to  siennas.  It  has  a tendency,  when  exposed  to  strong 
sunlight  for  a long  time,  to  darken,  which  is  evidently 
due  to  the  change  in  the  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  otherwise 
an  exceedingly  permanent  color,  but  has  a destructive 
influence  on  all  lakes  with  which  it  may  be  mixed.  It 
is  a good  drier. 


BROWN  PINK 

Brown  pink  is  similar  in  composition  to  Dutch  pink 
and  Italian  pink.  It  is  a transparent  olive  yellow  like 
all  of  its  progenitors.  It  is  made  from  either  the 
Persian  berry  or  quercitron  bark,  and  when  made  from 
a vegetable  coloring  matter  of  this  kind,  has  little  or 
no  value  as  a permanent  pigment.  It  is  very  easily 
decomposed  in  the  presence  of  many  of  the  metallic 
pigments,  and  when  mixed  with  zinc  or  used  as  a glaze 


[97] 


Permanent  Painting 


will  fade  in  the  bright  sunlight  perceptibly  in  four 
weeks. 

For  experimental  purposes,  however  the  author  has 
made  a color  of  this  nature  on  the  paranitraniline  ser- 
ies which,  when  used  alone  over  a dry  surface,  is  prac- 
tically permanent  and  does  not  bleach  in  the  light,  but 
darkens  very  slightly.  Brown  pink  after  a year  is 
useless  as  a permanent  color  and  is  not  recommended. 
Neither  can  the  transparent  yellow  made  by  the  author 
be  recommended  at  this  writing,  because  the  color  has 
only  been  under  observation  for  four  years. 


BURNT  CARMINE 

Burnt  carmine  is  made  from  ordinary  carmine  or  car- 
mine lake  by  heating  it  until  the  organic  matter  begins 
to  char,  so  that  what  we  really  have  is  a decomposition 
of  the  color  and  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  car- 
bon. If  you,  therefore,  take  a lake  and  mix  it  with 
carbon  black,  you  obtain  practically  the  same  results. 
At  the  same  time,  any  burnt  lake  of  the  carmine  or 
scarlet  or  crimson  order  is  a fugitive  color,  weak  in 
hiding  power,  poor  in  glazing  properly,  but  effects  are 
obtained  which  are  regarded  as  desirable  by  some.  A 
burnt  lake  should  really  not  be  used  by  any  painter. 
It  may  be  a very  beautiful  color,  and  it  may  possibly 
have  some  uses  for  interior  decoration  where  brilliancy 
is  not  required,  but  from  the  standpoint  of  the  artists’ 
palette,  it  is  unfortunate  that  this  color  was  ever  in- 


[98] 


Permanent  Painting 


vented  for  a four  weeks’  exposure  to  the  midsummer’s 
sun  decomposed  it  almost  beyond  recognition. 

Any  madder  with  a touch  of  lampblack  produces  the 
same  result,  and  color  manufacturers  could  produce 
such  a combination  under  the  name  of  permanent 
burnt  lake. 

BROWN  ROMAN  OCHRE 

This  is  a species  of  dark  ochre  obtained  by  burning 
the  ochre  and  driving  ofi  the  water  which  it  contains, 
thus  producing  a rich  brown  which  has  some  similarity 
to  burnt  sienna,  but  is  very  much  weaker.  It  is  a 
very  permanent  color.  When  mixed  with  whites  it 
does  not  fade,  but  after  eighteen  months  becomes 
slightly  darker,  if  that  term  may  be  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  it,  but  in  spite  of  its  darkening  it  loses  none 
of  its  pristine  brilliancy,  and  was  one  of  the  colors 
used  by  the  early  Italian  painters  with  excellent 
results. 

When  ground  in  pure  linseed  oil,  it  has  a tendency 
to  harden  in  the  tube,  but  may  be  broken  up  and  used 
freely.  It  has  very  little  hiding  power,  and  may  there- 
fore be  used  as  a glazing  color.  It  has  less  effect 
upon  the  decomposition  of  madder  lake  than  its  un- 
burnt progenitor. 

BURNT  SIENNA 

This  is  a material  very  much  similar  in  composition 
to  burnt  ochre,  excepting  that  its  content  of  oxide  of 


[99] 


Permanent  Painting 


iron  is  very  much  larger,  and  the  physical  character- 
istics differ  from  those  of  ochre.  Ochre  is  opaque  and 
burnt  sienna  is  translucent.  Burnt  sienna  is  one  of 
the  most  permanent  colors  in  existence,  excepting 
perhaps,  the  lighter  shades  which  have  not  been  so 
well  calcined,  and  these  have  a strong  tendency  to 
darken  and  become  redder.  As  a glazing  color,  it 
has  valuable  properties,  and  it  can  be  mixed  with 
lake  colors.  Painters  generally  allow  the  sienna  to 
dry  thoroughly,  and  then  glaze  a lake  color  over  it. 
Exceedingly  rich  tints  are  produced  in  this  manner 
which  are  absolutely  permanent,  providing  the  lake 
itself  is  permanent. 

The  mars  colors  are  nearly  all  artificial  siennas  and 
are  just  as  permanent.  Burnt  sienna  is  an  excellent 
drier  and  will  mix  with  almost  every  other  perma- 
nent color. 

BURNT  UMBER 

Burnt  umber  is  similar  to  burnt  sienna.  It  con- 
tains oxides  of  manganese  and  iron.  It  is  made  by 
heating  raw  umber,  which  is  a dark  olive  green  color, 
but  when  heated  is  converted  into  a pleasing  brown. 
It  is  a permanent  color,  and  one  of  the  best  drying  pig- 
ments in  existence ; so  much  so,  that  many  painters 
mix  umber  with  their  pigments  for  producing  dark 
backgrounds  in  order  to  obtain  a good  drying  surface. 

Burnt  umber  has  more  hiding  power  (opacity)  than 


[100] 


Permanent  Painting 


tlie  sienna  colors  and  is  perfectly  permanent  and  re- 
liable. Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  paint  it  over 
a soft  or  semi-dry  ground  or  cracks  will  result. 


CADMIUM  YELLOW 

This  description  comprises  all  of  the  cadmium  colors 
from  the  palest  yellow  to  the  deepest  orange.  All  of 
the  cadmium  colors  are  manufactured  by  precipitat- 
ing a salt  of  cadmium  with  a salt  containing  a sul- 
phide, so  that  the  cadmiums  are  sulphides  of  cadmium, 
and  according  to  the  speed  of  precipitation,  tempera- 
ture of  the  solutions,  admixture  of  acids  or  alkalies, 
all  shades  from  brilliant  yellow  to  the  deepest  orange 
are  formed. 

All  writers  practically  agree  in  stating,  and  the 
experiments  of  the  author  confirm  it,  that  cadmium 
yellow  may  be  regarded  as  a perfectly  permanent 
pigment.  The  artistic  painter  is  fortunate  in  having 
such  a brilliant  color  at  his  command.  Much  has 
been  written  on  the  supposed  reactions  that  take 
place  between  this  and  other  pigments.  It  is  said, 
though  being  a sulphide,  it  should  not  be  mixed  with 
a lead  color,  because  the  sulphur  in  the  cadmium 
would  combine  with  the  lead  with  a blackening  effect. 
Ordinarily,  this  is  not  so.  Cadmium  sulphide  is  a 
very  stable  chemical  compound,  and  will  not  give  up 
its  sulphur  as  readily  as  artificial  ultramarine  blue 


[ 101  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


will ; for  instance,  there  should  therefore  be  no  hesi- 
tancy in  using  cadmium  sulphide  with  any  lead  com- 
pound, although,  to  make  assurance  doubly  sure, 
zinc  white  could  be  used  as  when  a cadmium  color 
is  mixed  with  zinc  there  can  not  possibly  be  any  visi- 
ble eflfect  of  decomposition. 

It  is  unfortunate,  perhaps,  that  cadmium  sulphide  is 
so  very  expensive.  The  dry  pigment  itself  costs  at 
this  writing  about  $3.00  a pound  to  manufacture,  but 
no  artistic  painter  should  be  without  this  yellow,  and 
above  all  it  should  only  be  bought  from  a manufacturer 
of  excellent  reputation. 

Cadmium  yellow  may  fail,  and  in  many  instances 
does  fail,  because  it  is  improperly  made  and  because 
it  is  ground  in  an  emulsion  of  oil  and  water,  or  be- 
cause the  oil  in  which  it  is  ground  may  be  of  a highly 
acid  nature.  Manufacturers  of  tube  colors  ought  to 
learn  the  lesson  that  no  tube  color  should  be  ground  in 
a chemically  bleached  vegetable  oil,  for  oils  are  prin- 
cipally bleached  by  means  of  a strong  acid  like  sul- 
phuric or  chromic,  and  all  traces  of  these  acids  are 
not  entirely  washed  out,  so  that  much  trouble  may 
arise  from  the  ultimate  effect  of  this  trace  of  acid, 
and  even  a good  color  like  cadmium  may  be  decom- 
posed if  the  oil  be  not  entirely  pure. 

The  cadmiums  are  slow  but  reliable  driers  and  may 
be  mixed  with  all  other  chemical  pigments,  even  flake 
white,  without  decomposing. 


[102] 


Permanent  Painting 


CALEDONIAN  BROWN 

Caledonian  brown  may  be  a mixture  of  brown  umber 
and  raw  sienna  in  varying  degrees,  or  it  may  be  a 
mixture  of  Vandyke  brown  and  sienna.  In  the  latter 
case  it  would  not  be  permanent.  In  the  former  case 
it  would  be,  and  in  all  events,  no  two  manufacturers 
use  the  same  mixture  of  pigments  nor  obtain  the 
same  shades,  and  as  the  painter  can  obtain  the  shade 
he  wants  by  mixtures  of  these  permanent  pigments, 
there  is  really  no  reason  why  this  color  should  be 
added  to  the  already  complicated  list  of  painters’  tube 
colors.  It  has  a tendency  to  grow  darker  upon  very 
long  exposure,  and  when  it  contains  manganese  is  a 
good,  hard  drier,  but  when  it  contains  large  cjuanti- 
ties  of  Vandyke,  it  is  a soft,  slow  drier.  It  is  easily 
produced  on  the  palette  by  mixing  sienna  and  umber. 


CAPPAH  BROWN 

Cappah  brown  is  a species  of  decomposed  bog  earth 
similar  in  composition  to  a mixture  of  vandyke  brown 
and  burnt  umber.  It  is  similar  to  umber  on  account  of 
the  manganese  which  it  contains,  and  therefore  is  a 
good  drier.  It  is,  however,  not  very  stable  in  bright 
sunlight  and  darkens  somewhat  on  exposure  owing 
to  its  content  of  bitumen.  It  can  easily  be  spared  from 
the  list  of  browns. 


[ 103] 


Permanent  Painting 


CARBON  BLACK 

This  is  an  extremely  fine  pigment  stronger  than 
lamp  black  and  intensely  black,  in  fact,  in  blackness 
it  compares  favorably  with  ivory  black.  It  is  per- 
manent, and  does  not  affect  any  other  pigment  with 
which  it  may  be  mixed.  Its  great  strength  (tinctorial 
power)  can  be  shown  very  easily  as  follows : if  one 
takes  one  part  of  carbon  black  and  twenty  parts  of 
permanent  white  and  mixes  them  together,  the  result 
will  be  a black  which  will  approximate  the  shade  of 
lamp  black.  In  other  words,  it  has  such  intense  color- 
ing properties  that  it  stains  every  other  color  with 
which  it  may  be  mixed.  Although  it  is  absolutely 
harmless  under  all  circumstances,  it  is  no  better  than 
ivory  black  and  possesses  a number  of  disadvantages. 
It  is  an  extremely  poor  drier  and  retards  the  drying 
of  every  other  pigment  with  which  it  may  be  mixed, 
so  that  ivory  or  bone  black  should  be  used  in  place  of  it. 

CARMINE 

Carmine  is  the  coloring  matter  of  the  cochineal  bug 
which  is  mordanted  or  fastened  by  means  of  alum.  It 
is  an  intensely  brilliant  red,  translucent  and  works 
well  and  dries  fairly  well,  but  it  is  exceedingly  fugi- 
tive, and  is  not  only  bleached  by  the  action  of  sunlight, 
but  is  destroyed  by  many  of  the  metallic  pigments. 
There  is  no  effect  that  can  be  produced  with  carmine 
that  cannot  be  produced  with  the  madder  lakes,  and 


[104] 


Permanent  Painting 


therefore  carmine  should  never  be  used  on  any  paint- 
er’s palette. 


CARMINE  LAKE 

Carmine  lake  is  a deep  maroon  which  is  made  after 
the  first  coloring  matter  is  extracted  from  the  cochi- 
neal bug.  It  may  have  a pleasing  maroon  shade,  and 
it  may  have  good  working  qualities,  but  in  six  days  in 
the  bright  sunlight  it  shows  a loss  of  brilliancy  and 
begins  to  fade.  This  quality  should  eliminate  it  as  a 
pigment  for  artistic  use.  It  is  decomposed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  ochres. 


CARNATION  LAKE 

Prior  to  25  years  ago  this  lake  was  a carmine  de- 
rivative. Within  the  last  20  years  the  author  has 
found  a carmine  sold  under  the  name  of  carnation 
lake  which  was  evidently  a wood  extract  and  fugitive, 
and  another  sample  which  was  a reduced  form  of 
madder  lake.  The  former  was  fugitive  and  useless. 
The  latter,  while  not  very  brilliant,  was  permanent, 
so  that,  at  this  writing,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
carnation  lake,  as  a general  statement,  is  permanent 
* or  not,  for  it  depends  entirely  upon  the  maker.  Under 
the  circumstance  it  is  advisable  not  to  use  it  for  it  is 
not  essential,  as  the  same  shade  is  sold  under  the  name 
of  scarlet  madder. 


[ 105] 


Permanent  Painting 


CASSEL  EARTH 

This  pigment  may  have  been  in  former  years  an 
ochrey  brown,  but  at  present  it  appears  to  be  identical 
with  Vandyke  brown,  and  is  not  regarded  as  a per- 
manent color.  It  will  be  properly  described  under  the 
name  of  vandyke  brown. 


CERULEAN  BLUE 

In  the  present  age  cerulean  blue  is  an  artificial  ultra- 
marine  blue  of  pale  shade  known  commercially  under 
the  name  of  artificial  cobalt  blue.  Some  manufactur- 
ers in  order  to  give  it  its  proper  tone  grind  this  pale 
commercial  ultramarine  blue  with  a mixture  of  zinc 
oxide,  and  it  has  the  property  of  appearing  blue  un- 
der gas  light  or  electric  light.  The  author  finds  that 
when  made  by  reputable  concerns,  it  is  perfectly  per- 
manent and  can  be  mixed  with  almost  any  pigment  ex- 
cepting those  containing  lead.  Its  existence  compli- 
cates matters,  however,  for  the  ordinary  cobalt  blue 
of  commerce  mixed  with  white  will  produce  practically 
the  same  shade  and  effect. 

CHARCOAL  GRAY 

This  pigment  appears  to  be  a vine  black  reduced  with 
permanent  white.  When  badly  washed  in  its  original 
manufacture  it  has  a tendency  to  become  hard  in  the 


[106] 


Permanent  Painting 


tubes.  It  can  easily  be  substituted  by  mixing  lamp 
black  with  permanent  white,  and  although  it  is  a per- 
manent color  and  not  affected  by  any  other  color,  it 
is  a hard  drier,  owing  to  its  alkaline  nature,  and  if 
used  on  top  of  a soft  drying  color  like  any  one  of  the 
lakes,  it  would  show  a tendency  to  crack. 

CHINESE  BLUE 

This  is  a ferrocyanide  of  iron  sold  also  under  the 
name  of  Prussian  blue,  milori  blue,  steel  blue,  bronze 
blue,  Antwerp  blue  and  various  other  names.  It  dif- 
fers from  Prussian  blue  physically  only  in  the  fact  that 
when  mixed  with  white  it  produces  a clear  sky-blue 
tint.  Chemically  it  is  unstable,  for,  when  mixed  with 
white  lead  and  allowed  to  remain  on  the  palette  over 
night  it  will  be  blue  where  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  air,  and  decomposes  into  a pale,  sickly  green  un- 
derneath the  surface.  It  does  not  show  this  defect 
when  mixed  with  permanent  white  or  zinc  oxide.  If 
mixed  with  one  of  the  charcoal  or  vine  blacks  which 
contain  a slight  amount  of  alkali,  it  loses  its  colo’’  and 
becomes  brownish,  but  when  properly  made  and  thor- 
oughly washed  in  its  original  manufacture  and  used 
alone,  it  is  practically  permanent.  It  may  have  some 
excellent  working  qualities,  and  may  be  a beautiful, 
rich  color,  but  all  its  shades  and  delicate  effects  can  be 
reproduced  by  means  of  more  permanent  blues.  There- 
fore, there  is  no  reason  why  this  blue  should  be  used. 


[ 107] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHINESE  VERMILION 

Chinese  vermilion  is  one  of  the  oldest  pigments 
known  to  artistic  painters.  The  reader  is  referred  to 
the  chapter  on  synopia  for  a history  of  the  use  of  this 
pigment.  Whether  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
obtained  vermilion  from  China  or  the  Idria  section, 
it  is  difficult  to  say,  but  the  chances  are  that  the  Orien- 
tal travelers  brought  some  of  the  native  vermilion 
with  them  in  addition  to  that  which  was  found  in 
Europe. 

Vermilion  is  a sulphide  of  mercury,  and  is  artificially 
made  by  mixing  sulphur  and  mercury  in  the  presence 
of  an  alkaline  solution  under  heat  and  pressure.  It 
ranges  in  shade  from  a light  orange  to  a deep  scarlet, 
and  while  it  is  perfectly  true  that  when  used  alone  as 
an  oil  color  and  exposed  to  the  brilliant  sun  rays,  it 
will  darken  considerably,  when  glazed  over  with  mad- 
der, as  is  frequently  done  after  it  is  thoroughly  dry, 
it  is  remarkably  permanent,  or  when  properly  varnished 
it  is  very  stable.  It  is  a good  drier  and  has  great 
opacity. 


CHINESE  WHITE 

Chinese  white  is  a zinc  oxide.  Its  name  would  imply 
that  it  is  a color  invented  by  the  Chinese  or  found 
in  China,  neither  of  which  is  the  case.  It  was  invented 
in  France,  and  probably  to  hide  its  origin  some  manu- 


[108] 


Permanent  Painting 


factiirer  called  it  Chinese  white.  The  description  will 
be  found  under  the  head  of  zinc  white. 

CHROME  GREEN,  LIGHT,  MEDIUM  AND  DARK 

These  greens  are  unfortunately  named,  because  al- 
though there  is  some  chromium  in  their  composition 
from  the  chromate  of  lead  which  they  contain,  they  are 
strictly  speaking,  not  pure  chrome  greens,  such  as 
guignet  or  viridian  green.  Chrome  greens  are  essen- 
tially a double  precipitate  of  chrome  yellow  and  Prus- 
sian blue,  and  vary  in  shade  according  to  the  percent- 
age of  yellow  or  blue  which  they  may  contain.  These 
colors  may  work  very  well  and  dry  very  well,  but 
have  the  combined  defects  of  chrome  yellow  and  Prus- 
sian blue.  Assuming  that  the  color  is  properly  made, 
it  is  fairly  permanent  to  light,  has  tremendous  tinting 
power,  but  is  acted  upon  by  sulphureted  hydrogen, 
and  even  when  not  subjected  to  the  action  of  any  gas, 
it  loses  its  brilliancy  within  a very  few  years.  It  is 
not  recommended  as  a necessary  color  and  can  be  very 
well  omitted. 

CHROME  ORANGE  AND  CHROME  RED 

Both  of  these  colors  are  chromates  of  lead  made 
with  the  addition  of  lime  and  are  not  any  more  perma- 
nent than  the  other  shades  of  chrome  yellow.  In  chem- 
ical composition  they  are  equal  to  chrome  yellow  mixed 


[109] 


Permanent  Painting 


with  a small  percentage  of  red  lead  or  orange  mineral. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  cadmium  orange  exists  and 
is  much  more  permanent,  chrome  orange  should  be 
eliminated  from  the  palette. 

CHROMIUM  OXIDE  (See  French  Veronese  Green) 
CINNABAR  GREEN 

The  word  cinnabar  refers  entirely  to  the  sulphide  of 
mercury,  and  when  chrome  green  was  first  made,  some 
manufacturer  called  his  product  cinnabar  green,  in- 
tending to  convey  the  idea  that  his  mixture  of  chrome 
yellow  and  Prussian  blue  was  as  permanent  as  cinnabar 
red  or  native  vermilion.  The  name  has  stuck  to  it  in  the 
trade.  An  examination  of  the  pigments  shows  that 
it  is  by  no  means  a pure  chrome  yellow  and  Prussian 
blue,  but  is  reduced  with  either  whiting,  permanent 
white  or  other  reinforcing  pigment,  and  owing  to  this 
reduction  it  is  more  permanent  than  the  concentrated 
color,  because  it  does  not  contain  as  much  pigment 
that  can  spoil  or  deteriorate  as  the  concentrated  color 
does.  In  brilliancy,  tone  and  strength,  it  is  quite  sat- 
isfactory, but  it  is  not  permanent  and  is  easily  affected 
by  noxious  gases. 

CITRON  YELLOW 

Citron  yellow  is  also  known  under  the  name  of 
primrose  yellow,  and  is  usually  composed  of  a mixture 
of  chromate  and  oxide  of  zinc.  Inasmuch  as  this  color 


[110] 


Permanent  Painting 


is  somewhat  soluble  in  water,  it  cannot  be  very  thor- 
oughly washed,  and  in  the  presence  of  moisture  has 
a marked  effect  on  almost  every  color  with  which  it 
may  be  mixed.  When  used  alone,  it  is  quite  permanent 
and  not  affected  by  noxious  gases  of  any  kind,  and 
when  varnished  before  it  has  any  opportunity  for  de- 
composition, it  is  remarkably  permanent.  In  former 
years  it  was  regarded  as  a fugitive  color,  but  this  was 
due  to  defects  in  its  manufacture.  Now  the  color  has 
a fairly  large  sale  for  coach  painting,  but  as  an  artists’ 
color  there  is  no  reason  to  use  it,  because  the  pale 
shades  of  cadmium  mixed  with  permanent  white  pro- 
duce identical  effects  with  no  serious  results. 

COBALT  BLUE 

This  color  is  very  difficult  to  describe,  as  it  may 
be  a pale  shade  of  artificial  ultramarine  blue,  or  it 
may  be  a true  oxide  of  cobalt,  or  it  may  be  a salt  of 
cobalt  mixed  with  alumina  and  barium.  A tube  no 
larger  than  your  little  finger  may  sell  anywhere  from 
25  to  40  cents,  but  that  is  no  indication  whatever  of 
its  quality  or  composition,  and  the  majority  of  samples 
of  cobalt  blue  as  sold,  that  the  author  has  examined, 
consist  of  artificial  ultramarine  blue,  and  as  such  are 
among  the  most  permanent  and  useful  pigments  v.ffiich 
the  artist  can  possibly  use.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
cobalt  and  its  chemical  derivatives  are  expensive,  the 
high  price  still  clings  to  the  cobalt  blue  which  the  paint- 


[111] 


Permanent  Painting 


er  uses,  but  this  is  more  or  less  unwarranted,  because 
the  artificial  cobalt  blue  (ultramarine)  is  very  inex- 
pensive and  exceedingly  permanent,  except  when 
mixed  with  another  pigment  which  contains  lead,  like 
flake  white,  white  lead,  chrome  yellow  or  chrome  green. 
It  should  also  be  kept  away  from  colors  containing 
copper,  lead  and  iron,  and  such  metallic  bases  as 
are  affected  by  sulphureted  hydrogen,  for  the  slight- 
est trace  of  acid  will  liberate  sulphureted  hydrogen 
from  cobalt  or  ultramarine  blue. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  still  possible  to  buy  genu- 
ine cobalt  blue  which  is  a brilliant  blue  glaze,  finely 
powdered.  The  beautiful  blues  produced  on  china 
ware  by  means  of  vitrification  are  generally  produced 
by  means  of  oxide  of  cobalt,  which  turns  blue  at  a 
very  high  temperature.  When  these  blue  glazes  are 
finely  powdered  whetber  they  be  brought  up  in  a 
medium  of  glass  or  of  pottery  is  the  same.  As  such, 
these  blues  have  very  little  hiding  power,  but  are  ex- 
ceedingly brilliant  and  strong  and  unchangeable.  They 
are  used  as  transparent  glazes,  but  the  artificial  cobalt 
blue  made  from  ultramarine  is  just  as  transparent, 
and  when  used  alone  just  as  permanent.  At  the  same 
time,  the  minute  broken  bits  of  glass  of  which  genuine 
cobalt  blue  is  composed  refract  and  reflect  the  light 
with  such  brilliancy  that  the  optical  value  of  the  color 
is  enhanced. 

Cobalt  blue  is  sold  under  the  following  names: 
smalt,  powder  blue,  Vienna  blue,  royal  blue. 


[112] 


Permanent  Painting 


COBALT  GREEN 

Cobalt  green  is  made  in  various  ways.  Some  manu- 
facturers mix  a pale  shade  of  ultramarine  blue  which 
is  known  commercially  as  artificial  ultramarine  green 
with  a mixture  of  oxide  of  zinc.  Sometimes  it  is 
made  by  grinding  oxide  of  zinc  and  zafifer  which  is  a 
native  oxide  of  cobalt.  In  any  case  the  cobalt  green 
which  has  been  examined  is  apparently  very  permanent, 
but  lacks  very  much  in  opacity,  which,  however,  is  no 
detriment,  because  the  color  is  principally  used  as  a 
glazing  color.  It  appears  to  be  a very  expensive  color 
when  made  from  the  salt  of  genuine  cobalt,  and  as 
such  is  permanent  under  any  and  all  conditions.  It 
may  also  be  a composition  of  genuine  cobalt  blue 
mixed  with  chromate  of  zinc  or  zinc  yellow,  in  which 
case  it  would  also  be  permanent,  but  if  it  is  a mixture 
of  ultramarine  blue  and  chromate  of  zinc,  it  is  not 
permanent,  and  has  sometimes  been  known  to  decom- 
pose in  the  tube. 

It  is  difficult  for  the  painter  to  tell  what  the  com- 
position of  cobalt  green  may  be,  but  inasmuch  as  gen- 
uine chrome  green  which  is  described  under  the  name 
of  viridian  and  oxide  of  chromium  is  more  permanent 
and  of  practically  the  same  shade,  the  use  of  cobalt 
green  may  be  eliminated. 

COBALT  VIOLET 

This  is  also  a chemical  precipitate  made  with  phos- 
phate of  cobalt,  and  bas  evidently  been  used  for  nearly 


[113] 


Permanent  Painting 


a century.  It  is  exceedingly  permanent  and  translu- 
cent, but  has  not  the  tinctorial  power  of  the  purple 
madders  which  easily  replace  it. 

There  is  a violet  ultramarine  which  is  sometimes 
sold  under  the  name  of  cobalt  violet.  This  color  is  a 
beautiful,  clear,  transparent,  permanent  color.  When 
used  alone  or  as  a glaze  over  any  other  dried  color,  it 
dries  slowly. 


COLOGNE  EARTH 

This  may  be  a native  vandyke  brown  tinted  with 
lamp  black,  or  a native  vandyke  brown  which  is  cal- 
cined so  that  the  organic  matter  chars  and  blackens. 
It  dries  somewhat  better  than  vandyke  brown,  is  fair- 
ly permanent,  but  not  quite  as  translucent,  and  is 
analogous  to  cassel  earth  and  Rubens  brown.  If 
the  glazing  color  which  David  Teniers,  the  younger,  is 
supposed  to  have  used,  was  cologne  earth,  we  have 
no  reason  to  doubt  its  permanency,  and  all  experiments 
made  by  the  author  show  that  it  can  be  freely  mixed 
with  other  pigments  without  producing  any  decompos- 
ing effect. 


CONSTANT  WHITE 

There  is  no  question  that  this  material  which  is  an 
artificial  sulphate  of  barium  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
pigments  for  indiscriminate  use.  It  is  quite  true  that 
it  lacks  opacity,  and  that  even  when  piled  on  thickly 


[114] 


Permanent  Painting 


shows  a transparency  which  for  many  purposes  is 
detrimental  from  the  artistic  and  technical  standpoint, 
but  due  consideration  must  be  given  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  a valuable  pigment  which  can  be  indiscriminately 
mixed  with  every  pigment  that  is  permanent  without 
producing  any  harmful  effect.  For  producing  a per- 
manent glaze,  and  substituting  bitumen,  which  is  easily 
decomposed,  permanent  white  can  be  mixed  with  any 
one  of  the  solid  colors,  and  the  same  effect  produced. 
It  is  not  affected  by  any  gases,  and  when  scientifically 
prepared,  has  little  or  no  action  on  the  oil.  In  other 
words,  there  is  no  tendency  to  turn  the  oil  yellow 
when  placed  in  the  dark.  This  material  is  also  sold 
under  the  name  of  blanc  fixe,  and  although  some 
manufacturers  produce  a permanent  white  which  is 
largely  composed  of  zinc  oxide,  there  are  others  who 
grind  the  dry  blanc  fixe  in  oil,  and  still  others  who 
mix  dry  blanc  fixe  with  zinc  oxide.  There  are  many 
lake  colors  which  are  precipitated  on  this  material, 
and  therefore  a quasi  lake  can  always  be  made  by 
the  painter  by  taking  a small  proportion  of  the  solid 
pigment  and  mixing  it  with  a large  proportion  of 
constant  white.  It  dries  well  and  is  very  reliable. 


COPAL  MEGILP 

When  linseed  oil  is  boiled  with  oxide  of  lead  and 
manganese  to  a temperature  of  above  500°  F.,  a chem- 
ical decomposition  takes  place,  and  the  metallic  com- 


[ 115] 


Permanent  Painting 


pounds  are  dissolved  in  the  linseed  oil.  Strictly  speak- 
ing, in  the  chemical  sense,  a linseed  oil  metallic  soap 
is  formed  which  is  frequently  used  as  a drier,  and 
under  some  circumstances  is  reliable,  but  under  others 
is  not.  For  instance,  as  when  megilp  is  mixed  with  any 
one  of  the  blacks,  such  as  lamp  black,  carbon  black, 
ivory  black,  gray  black,  etc.,  it  hastens  their  drying, 
but  should  not  be  used  with  the  colors  which  natur- 
ally dry  well.  When  megilp  is  mixed  with  the  chemical 
colors,  a change  in  shade  almost  invariably  takes 
place,  and  it  is  an  established  fact  that  after  megilp 
is  dry  to  the  touch,  it  keeps  on  drying  until  the  re- 
sulting film  is  hard,  brittle  and  contractile. 

Where  megilp  is  used  indiscriminately,  a picture  is 
almost  invariably  likely  to  crack,  and  even  though  it 
may  have  some  good  qualities,  its  bad  qualities  so 
far  outweigh  them  that  it  should  not  be  used  for 
permanent  painting. 

CORK  BLACK 

This  is  a carbon  black  produced  by  calcining  cork. 
It  is  grayish  in  color  but  has  extreme  strength.  It 
is  a very  slow  drier,  which  is  characteristic  of  all 
carbons.  It  is  very  permanent  but  has  no  advantage 
over  lamp  black. 

CREMNITZ  WHITE,  CREMS  OR  KREMS  WHITE 

In  all  respects  this  white  is  similar  in  chemical  com- 
position to  flake  white  or  white  lead.  It  is  chemically 


[116] 


Permanent  Painting 


produced  by  what  is  known  as  the  “quick  process,” 
and  is  made  directly  from  a solution  of  acetate  of  lead. 
It  is  exceedingly  heavy,  but  crystalline  in  structure, 
and  very  easily  affected  by  sulphureted  hydrogen.  It 
should  not  be  used  in  painting  portraits  because  zinc 
white  is  far  more  permanent.  However,  it  has  one 
good  feature  and  is  useful  for  one  purpose.  In  pre- 
paring a canvas  cremnitz  white  mixed  with  turpentine 
produces  a flat  ground  which  has  what  the  painter  calls 
“tooth.”  The  surface  has  a fine  grain,  to  which  sub- 
sequent colors  adhere  well,  and  as  such  its  use  is  per- 
missible. 


CRIMSON  LAKE 

This  is  a beautiful  shade  of  cochineal  lake,  and  is 
manufactured  from  the  coloring  matter  which  remains 
after  the  carmine  has  been  precipitated  or  extracted 
from  the  cochineal  bug.  It  is,  however,  a useless  color. 
It  not  only  dries  badly,  but  when  submitted  to  the 
sunlight  for  lo  days,  it  bleaches  badly.  It  should 
never  be  used  under  any  circumstances  for  permanent 
painting,  and  is  similar  to  carmine  lake. 

CRIMSON  MADDER 

This  is  a form  of  madder  lake  manufactured  very 
largely  from  alizarin,  which  is  chemically  the  same 
as  the  madder  produced  from  the  root.  It  is  very 
permanent  as  long  as  it  is  used  alone  or  when  used 


[117] 


Permanent  Painting 


as  a glaze  over  a thoroughly  dry  surface,  but  when 
mixed  with  any  one  of  the  chemical  colors,  or  the  na- 
tive earth  colors,  it  decomposes  rapidly,  and  therefore 
should  not  be  used  indiscriminately.  It  dries  slowly. 

DAVEY’S  GRAY 

Davey’s  gray  is  a permanent  color  which  is  prepared 
from  a silicious  earth,  either  clay  or  slate,  tinted  with 
artificial  cobalt.  It  is  not  used  in  America  to  any  great 
extent,  because  it  is  assumed  that  the  color  may  be 
produced  by  a mixture  of  constant  white,  lamp  black 
and  cobalt  blue.  It  is  permanent  and  has  no  effect  on 
other  colors,  but  is  affected  by  sulphureted  hydrogen, 
or  when  made  with  artificial  ultramarine  blue  decom- 
poses lead  colors. 


DEEP  MADDER 

This  is  a permanent  glazing  color  when  used  alone 
or  when  glazed  over  other  colors  which  are  dry.  In 
shade  it  approaches  carmine  lake  and  should  be  used  m 
the  place  of  carmine  lake.  It  dries  very  slowly,  but 
can  be  generally  recommended  as  a safe  pigment.  Must 
not  be  mixed  with  ochre,  lead  or  native  earth  pigments. 

EMERALD  GREEN 

There  is  apparently  no  green  which  is  as  brilliant  as 
emerald  green.  It  is  also  known  under  the  name  of 


[118] 


Permanent  Painting 


Paris  green  or  emeraude  green.  It  is  a peculiarly  crys- 
talline color,  and  when  ground  exceedingly  fine  loses 
its  brilliancy.  Some  samples  contain  green  aniline, 
which  is  added  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it  staining 
power,  because  emerald  green  of  itself  is  a defective 
and  exceedingly  weak  color.  Being  a compound  of 
arsenic  and  copper,  it  is  very  easily  decomposed  by 
sulphur  gases,  although  it  is  fairly  permanent  to  light. 
It  is  one  of  the  fugitive  colors  for  whose  existence  there 
may  be  some  excuse,  because  it  is  exceedingly  bril- 
liant, and  when  used  with  extreme  care  and  varnished 
over  as  soon  as  it  is  thoroughly  dry,  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  it  should  not  last  50  or  100  years. 

Marine  painters  use  it  for  painting  the  starboard 
light,  and  sometimes  produce  a most  brilliant  effect  by 
starting  with  a hydrated  oxide  of  chromium,  then 
painting  a ring  of  emerald  green,  and  in  the  center 
placing  a touch  of  zinc  white.  This  gives  the  effect 
of  luminosity. 

Emerald  green  dries  slowly  and  should  always  be 
used  alone.  It  sometimes  destroys  lake  colors  in  a 
few  hours. 


EXTRACT  OF  VERMILION 

This  is  a misnomer,  for  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
an  extract  of  vermilion.  The  color  is  generally  a very 
pale  vermilion  of  scarlet  shade,  and  the  description 
under  the  head  of  Chinese  and  English  vermilion  an^ 
swers  the  description  of  extract  of  vermilion. 


[119] 


Permanent  Painting 


FIELD’S  ORANGE  VERMILION 

This  color  is  composed  of  the  sulphide  of  mercury, 
the  same  as  extract  of  vermilion,  Chinese  vermilion, 
etc.,  and  differs  only  in  shade,  being  somewhat  deeper 
than  cadmium  orange  or  orange  chrome  yellow.  It  is 
regarded  as  permanent  when  used  alone  and  is  a fairly 
good  drier. 


FLAKE  WHITE 

The  Dutch  were  the  first  to  manufacture  white  lead, 
by  what  is  known  as  the  Dutch  process,  which  con- 
sisted in  submitting  sheets  of  lead  to  the  heat  of  de- 
composing manure  and  the  vapors  of  vinegar.  They 
found  that  the  metallic  lead  was  decomposed  after  3 
or  4 months,  and  flakes  of  white  replaced  the  metallic 
lead.  The  Dutch  called  this  pigment  scheel  white, 
which  means  scale  or  flake,  and  when  we  use  the  term 
“flake  white”  we  always  refer  to  white  lead. 

There  is  no  question  that  flake  white  has  certain 
defects,  its  principal  one  being  that  it  is  affected  by 
sulphur  gases.  Another  defect,  which  it  has  in  con- 
junction with  many  other  pigments,  is  its  tendency 
to  turn  a painting  yellow.  Much  of  the  yellowness 
of  age  is  due  to  the  decomposition  which  takes  place 
between  flake  white  and  the  oil  or  varnish  used  as 
a medium. 

At  the  same  time,  there  are  many  pictures  which  are 


[ 120] 


Permanent  Painting 


hundreds  of  years  old  in  which  the  flake  white  has 
been  rejuvenated  even  after  it  has  turned  brown  or 
yellow  through  the  effect  of  gases.  From  a mechanical 
standpoint  flake  white  is  an  unctious  paint  which 
works  very  well  under  the  artist’s  brush,  and  when 
properly  dry  and  glazed  over  with  zinc,  cannot  be 
considered  as  fugitive  or  easily  decomposed.  It  has 
the  advantage  over  zinc,  that  it  does  not  dry  continu- 
ously, nor  does  it  become  exceedingly  brittle  with  age, 
but  zinc  has  so  far  replaced  it  that  there  is  really  no 
reason  why  it  should  be  promiscuously  used. 

FRENCH  BLUE 

This  is  an  artificial  ultramarine  blue  which  is  abso- 
luely  permanent  to  light,  dries  fairly  well,  and  can 
either  be  used  as  a glaze  or  as  a solid  color.  It  must 
never  be  mixed  with  flake  white,  chrome  yellow, 
chrome  green,  emerald  green,  or  any  pigment  contain- 
ing a metallic  base,  excepting  zinc.  When  mixed  with 
zinc,  any  re-action  that  may  take  place  is  not  visible 
or  apparent,  and  for  this  reason  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  colors  that  we  have.  It  is  identical  in 
composition  with  the  genuine  lapis  lazuli  oi  natural 
ultramarine  blue,  and  the  author  cannot  find  that  it 
is  inferior  in  any  respects  to  the  natural  stone. 

It  contains  a large  amount  of  sulphur,  which  is 
very  easily  liberated  in  the  presence  of  an  acid,  and 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  there  is  free  acid  in  the  at- 
mosphere in  any  city,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that 


[121] 


Permanent  Painting 


this  pigment  should  never  be  mixed  with  any  other 
pigment  which  the  free  sulphurous  acid  is  likely  to 
decompose.  In  the  chapter  on  drying  oils  evidence 
will  be  adduced  which  will  demonstrate  that  decompo- 
sition can  take  place  only  in  the  presence  of  water 
or  moisture,  so  that  the  decomposition  of  ultramarine 
blue  by  acid  with  flake  white  can  be  prevented. 


FRENCH  ULTRAMARINE 

The  same  as  French  blue  or  artificial  ultramarine 
blue.  It  was  first  made  in  France  but  to-day  Germany 
and  the  United  States  are  the  largest  producers  of 
ultramarine  blue.  When  used  alone  or  when  mixed 
with  zinc  white  it  is  absolutely  permanent.  There  are 
no  less  than  twenty  shades  of  French  ultramarine  rang- 
ing from  the  palest  cobalt  to  the  deepest  ultramarine. 
Other  varieties  are  also  made,  such  as  green,  violet, 
purple  and  red,  which  will  be  described  in  their  proper 
places. 


FRENCH  VERMILION 

The  same  as  Chinese  or  English  vermilion. 


FRENCH  VERONESE  GREEN 

French  Veronese  green  is  now  a permanent  pig- 
ment which  does  not  possess  very  much  opacity,  but 


[122] 


Permanent  Painting 


can  be  readily  mixed  with  any  other  pigment  without 
any  injurious  effects.  There  is  a story  extant  that 
Paul  Veronese  was  the  discoverer  or  inventor  of  this 
color,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  is  true,  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  production  of  hydrated  oxide  of 
chromium  was  evidently  not  known  during  the  time 
that  he  lived.  The  true  Veronese  green  named  for 
him  was  more  likely  a clay  colored  with  hydrated  ox- 
ide of  iron  known  to  this  day  under  the  name  of  terre 
verte  or  green  earth,  although  from  the  evidence  which 
we  have  at  hand,  terre  verte  was  used  long  before 
Paul  Veronese  was  born. 

Veronese  green  is  similar  to  the  genuine  chrome 
green,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  the  solid  or 
opaque  kind,  known  under  the  name  of  chromium 
oxide,  and  the  transparent  kind,  known  under  the 
name  of  viridian.  Viridian  is  sometimes  known  un- 
der the  name  of  guignet  green,  but  it  is  generally 
believed  that  guignet  green  is  the  oxide  of  chromium 
and  not  the  hydrated  oxide. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  hydrated  oxide 
is  a transparent  color  similar  to  a lake,  and  the  ox- 
ide of  chromium  is  an  opaque  pigment  with  intense 
hiding  power.  Both  the  oxide  and  the  hydrated  oxide 
are  very  permanent  under  any  and  all  conditions,  and 
can  be  mixed  with  other  pigments  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  hydrated  oxide  and  madder  lake  show 
some  slight  decomposition,  but  as  has  been  properly 
pointed  out,  there  is  seldom,  if  any,  opportunity,  where 


[123] 


Permanent  Painting 


madder  lake  must  be  mixed  with  oxide  of  chromium 
to  produce  any  given  shade. 

Veronese  green  is  a good  drier  and  a reliable  color. 


FOUNDATION  WHITE 

This  is  the  ordinary  white  lead  of  commerce  which 
is  generally  a very  pure  article,  and  is  identical  with 
that  which  the  house  painter  uses.  As  such,  it  is  not 
by  any  means  the  best  foundation  white,  and  cannot 
compare  with  a mixture  of  zinc  oxide  and  white  lead. 
For  foundation  purposes,  such  a mixture  dries  very 
well,  and  produces  a surface  which  is  neither  too 
hard  nor  too  soft,  and  after  it  has  dried  sufficiently 
hard,  presents  a surface  to  which  other  pigments  ad- 
here very  well.  Such  a surface  has  what  is  technically 
known  as  “tooth,”  so  that  when  we  speak  of  a pig- 
ment having  “tooth,”  we  refer  to  a physical  surface 
to  which  other  colors  adhere  properly. 

Foundation  white  may  be  made  by  the  painter  of  a 
mixture  of  ordinary  house  painters’  pigments,  such  as 
zinc  white  and  white  lead  ground  in  linseed  oil.  It 
should  be  thinned  only  with  turpentine  so  as  to  dry 
with  a gloss.  A little  picture  varnish  (mastic  dis- 
solved in  turpentine  or  damar  varnish)  may  be  mixed 
to  give  elasticity  but  as  these  varnishes  become  brittle 
in  time,  fat  oil  (a  fatty  linseed  oil)  is  preferable  and 
a small  quantity  in  foundation  white  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. 


[124] 


Permanent  Painting 


GALL  STONE  OR  EXTRACT  OF  GALL 

This  is  a true  organic  color  with  which  the  bile 
of  the  gall  bladder  is  strongly  tinted.  When  this 
bile  is  combined  with  lime  and  magnesia,  it  forms  small 
nodules  known  as  gall  stones.  It  has  its  origin  dur- 
ing the  time  when  the  ancients  used  almost  any  ma- 
terial which  had  tinctorial  power,  but  as  it  possesses 
no  particular  merit  and  is  exceedingly  fugitive,  it  is 
not  to  be  recommended  for  painting. 

GAMBOGE 

Gamboge  is  a semi-soluble  resin  which  is  obtained 
from  a particular  tree  in  India,  Ceylon  and  Siam.  It 
is  a coloring  matter  which  has  many  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  yellow  coloring  matter  in  linseed  oil,  in 
fact,  a chemical  examination  of  it  indicates  that  it  is 
analogous  to  xantophyll  and  is  not  as  fugitive  as 
the  yellow  coloring  matter  obtained  from  turmeric, 
Persian  berry,  etc.  We  find  it  on  the  market  in  com- 
bination with  alumina  as  a base,  and  as  it  has  no 
hiding  power  whatever,  it  must  be  regarded  as  a stain 
or  a true  lake,  for  it  is  quite  transparent.  It  is  seldom 
sold  in  its  pure  state,  and  as  an  oil  color,  the  dye  which 
gamboge  contains  is  mordanted  on  alumina  as  a base. 
It  bleaches  somewhat  when  exposed  to  strong  sun- 
light but  recovers  its  color  again  when  placed  in  the 
dark,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  coloring  matter 
of  many  of  the  vegetable  oils.  It  is  of  a true  resinous 


[125] 


Permanent  Painting 


nature,  and  therefore  acts  like  a varnish  gum,  for  it 
dries  with  a considerable  gloss.  It  is  not  very  stable, 
and  while  it  may  dry  fairly  well  by  itself,  it  acts  sim- 
ilar to  bitumen,  retarding  the  drying  of  other  colors. 
It  is  therefore  not  to  be  generally  recommended. 

GERANIUM  LAKE 

It  is  very  unfortunate  that  in  the  early  70’s  when 
the  dye  known  as  eosine  was  invented,  many  brilliant 
lakes  were  made  for  the  painter,  which  exceeded  in 
strength  and  efifectivenss  any  coloring  matter  that  had 
been  known  before  that  time.  There  are  two  shades  of 
geranium,  the  bluish  and  the  yellowish,  both  of  them 
exceedingly  brilliant,  some  of  which  are  precipitated 
on  alumina  and  some  on  minium  or  red  lead.  In  any 
case,  geranium  lake  is  so  fugitive  when  made  of  eosine, 
that  in  24  hours  it  begins  to  bleach,  and  many  a painter 
has  had  his  work  completely  destroyed  by  the  use  of 
pigments  of  this  class.  It  is  unfortunate  that  these  col- 
ors were  ever  sold  to  painters.  They  should  under 
no  circumstances  be  used.  The  madder  lakes  easily 
replace  geranium  lake  and  should  be  used  instead. 


GERANIUM  MADDER 

When  this  pigment  is  made  of  a very  bright  form  of 
madder  it  is  safe  to  use  it  as  a glazing  color,  as  it  is 
perfectly  permanent.  It  is  like  all  the  madders  which 


[ 126] 


Permanent  Painting 


are  easier  to  use  as  glazes  than  in  mixtures  with  any 
pigments  which  may  have  an  ultimate  efifect,  that  is, 
the  color  will  change  in  time.  It  dries  very  slowly  and 
must  not  be  mixed  with  ochre,  raw  sienna  or  flake 
white. 

GOLD  OCHRE  OR  GOLDEN  OCHRE 

Ordinarily  this  pigment  is  French  ochre  toned  with 
chrome  yellow,  and  the  painter  should  not  use  it,  for 
it  is  far  preferable  to  use  ordinary  ochre,  toning  it,  if 
necessary,  with  cadmium  yellow.  All  the  ochres  have 
a slight  tendency  to  darken  upon  exposure.  They 
must  not  be  mixed  with  any  of  the  lake  colors,  but 
when  mixed  with  any  of  the  mineral  colors  are  prac- 
tically permanent.  Ochres  all  dry  very  well  and  when 
once  dry  are  permanent. 

GREEN  LAKE 

This  pigment  is  prepared  in  various  ways,  and  is 
generally  conceded  to  be  a fugitive  color  which  has 
little  or  no  value.  When  made  of  an  aniline  dye 
precipitated  on  alumina  it  will  fade  within  a week,  but 
when  made  of  zinc  yellow  and  Prussian  blue  diluted 
with  alumina,  it  will  retain  its  brilliancy  for  many 
years.  There  is  another  variety  on  the  market  which 
is  made  of  Dutch  pink  or  quercitron  bark  extract  and 
Prussian  blue,  which  is  not  as  permanent  as  that  made 
from  zinc  yellow.  The  color  is  not  to  be  recommended. 


[127] 


Permanent  Painting 


HARRISON  RED 

This  is  a new  pigment  of  the  aniline  series  which  is 
exceedingly  brilliant  and  probably  ten  times  as  strong 
as  quick  silver  vermilion.  In  shade  it  approximates 
a mixture  of  light  and  dark  English  vermilion,  but  in 
tinctorial  power  it  is  remarkably  strong.  It  is  much 
more  permanent  to  light  than  vermilion,  and  like  ver- 
milion it  has  a tendency  to  darken  and  not  to  fade. 

Its  composition  is  similar  to  a proprietary  red  known 
as  helio  fast  red,  and  is  made  by  one  of  the  large  ani- 
line manufacturers  in  Germany  and  they  probably 
named  it  in  honor  of  the  American  artist,  Birge  Har- 
rison. 

This  pigment  possesses  some  analogies  to  the  parani- 
traniline  colors,  but  has  the  advantage  of  not  bleed- 
ing. In  other  words,  after  it  is  dry,  and  when  white 
is  painted  over  it  the  red  does  not  bleed  through 
and  turn  the  white  into  a brown  as  is  the  case  with 
para  reds. 

Harrison  red  may  be  said  to  be  permanent  when 
thoroughly  diluted  with  alumina  lake  and  white ; it 
does  show  slight  traces  of  decomposition  after  three 
months’  exposure  to  the  sun,  but  not  sufficient  to 
condemn  it,  and  it  may  be  said  that  the  only  disad- 
vantage concerning  this  color,  known  at  present,  is 
its  inability  to  dry.  When  Harrison  red  is  mixed  with 
oil  it  sometimes  remains  absolutely  moist  and  smeary 
for  six  or  seven  weeks,  which,  of  course,  is  a serious 


[128] 


Permanent  Painting 


disadvantage.  At  the  same  time  the  addition  of  a 
drier  or  a drying  oil  changes  the  brilliancy  of  its 
shade,  so  that  it  might  be  well  in  the  use  of  this  color 
to  reduce  it  only  with  turpentine  and  then  expose  it  to 
the  light.  It  mixes  well  with  madder  lake  without 
showing  very  much  decomposition. 


HOOKER’S  GREEN 

This  pigment  is  similar  to  the  green  lakes  just  de- 
scribed, with  the  exception  that  it  has  some  hiding 
power.  Some  manufacturers,  in  order  to  make  it  more 
permanent,  use  a mixture  of  orange  chrome  yellow, 
Prussian  blue  and  alumina,  which  is  not  as  brilliant  as 
the  pigment  made  from  yellow  lake  or  gamboge,  but 
it  is  much  more  permanent. 

One  sample  examined  by  the  author  appeared  to 
be  a mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  raw  sienna.  Such 
a mixture  is  permanent  and  dries  well. 


INDIAN  BLUE  (See  also  Indigo) 

This  color  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  certain 
plants  which  are  found  principally  in  India.  Within 
the  last  few  years  it  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
research,  as  in  the  case  of  madder,  so  that  it  is  now 
manufactured  artificially  from  coal  tar.  The  pigment 
present  in  artificial  indigo  is  identical  wdth  that  in  the 
natural,  but  the  artificial  color  is  purer.  In  its  over- 


[129] 


Permanent  Painting 


tone  it  is  similar  to  Prussian  blue,  but  is  much  weaker, 
and  somewhat  transparent,  having  all  of  the  character- 
istics of  a lake  color.  It  dries  poorly,  and  when  a 
manganese  or  lead  drier  is  added  to  it  it  is  quickly 
decomposed.  When  it  is  exposed  to  the  sunlight  it 
fades  rapidly.  It  is,  therefore,  useless  for  artistic 
painting. 


INDIAN  LAKE 

Indian  lake  is  a deep  red  lake  which  is  assumed  to 
be  the  lake  that  exudes  from  the  tree  from  which 
gum  shellac  is  recovered,  and  is  one  of  the  lakes  which 
was  probably  used  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  which  tend- 
ed to  destroy  his  pictures  to  such  a great  extent.  In  per- 
manency it  is  better  than  carmine,  and  not  by  any 
means  as  good  as  madder,  and  like  all  organic  lakes 
is  quickly  decomposed  when  mixed  with  some  of 
the  iron  oxide  colors.  It  is  fugitive  and  unreliable, 
dries  very  badly  and  should  not  be  used. 

INDIAN  PURPLE 

Indian  purple  is  a complex  mixture  originally  made 
by  taking  a weak  form  of  Prussian  blue  and  mixing  it 
with  vermilion.  As  such,  it  was  very  deep  toned  and 
muddy,  but  was  fairly  permanent.  Later  on,  carmine 
was  added  to  this  mixture,  but  it  was  found  that,  al- 
though the  brilliancy  of  the  colors  was  enhanced,  it 


[130] 


Permanent  Painting 


was  less  permanent  than  before.  Nowadays  it  is 
made  by  coloring  or  mixing  ultramarine  blue  with' 
madder  lake,  during  the  process  of  manufacture  of 
the  madder,  and  is  regarded  as  a fairly  permanent 
color.  It  can  be  readily  duplicated  on  the  palette. 


INDIAN  RED 

This  is  a true  oxide  of  iron  which  contains  no  water 
in  its  combination,  is  extremely  permanent,  and  can 
be  generally  recommended  when  it  is  unsophisticated. 
Unfortunately  a number  of  manufacturers  of  artist 
tube  colors  spoil  this  good  and  permanent  color  by 
adding  a lake  in  order  to  enhance  its  brilliancy,  and 
in  doing  so  destroy  the  permanent  value  of  the  pig- 
ment. The  name  Indian  red  is  supposed  to  have  or- 
iginated from  two  sources ; the  first,  because  a native 
form  of  hematite  or  red  oxide  of  iron  which  contains 
silica  was  found,  and  is  still  found,  in  the  Orient,  par- 
ticularly in  Persia,  and,  in  the  second  place,  from  the 
further  fact  that  the  North  American  Indians  used  the 
native  red  ochre  or  hematite  as  a wash  for  the  wig- 
wams, and  as  a coloring  matter  for  personal  decora- 
tion. In  either  case,  the  colors  chemically  are  the 
same  and  are  bright  red  oxides  of  iron.  Much  of  the 
Indian  red,  however,  which  is  used  by  color  makers, 
is  artificially  prepared  by  burning  copperas  (sulphate 
of  iron),  until  the  acid  is  entirely  driven  off,  and 
only  the  oxide  remains.  When  this  is  washed  it  forms 


[ 131] 


Permanent  Painting 


a bright  red,  solid  color  which  can  be  mixed  with 
nearly  every  other  permanent  pigment,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  fairly  permanent,  with  one  or  two  excep- 
tions. Upon  long  and  extreme  exposure  the  bright 
Indian  red  loses  its  brilliancy  and  turns  darker,  which 
is  due  to  the  chemical  change  or  decomposition  from 
the  ferric  to  the  ferrous  state.  The  ferrous  oxide  of 
iron  is  a black  oxide  with  which  the  artistic  painter  is 
not  acquainted.  The  ferric  oxide  of  iron  is  the  bright, 
red  oxide.  The  darkening  effect  of  Indian  red  is  due 
to  the  slight  change  from  the  ferric  to  the  ferrous 
oxide.  The  same  is  true  when  Indian  red  is  mixed 
with  zinc  oxide  to  produce  a flesh  tint.  The  author 
exposed  a sample  so  made  for  three  years  to  the  bright 
daylight,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  a very  slight 
darkening  effect  had  taken  place,  but  inasmuch  as 
artistic  paintings  are  rarely,  if  ever,  exposed  to  the 
bright  sunshine  throughout  the  entire  }^ear,  Indian  red 
must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  permanent  and  reliable 
pigments. 

Indian  red  dries  very  well  and  has  enormous  hid- 
ing power  (opacity).  When  mixed  with  zinc  oxide 
to  produce  a ground  for  flesh  tints  it  is  very  reliable. 
There  are  many  shades  of  Indian  red.  Some  produce 
a violet  when  mixed  with  white  and  others  a dis- 
tinct pink  or  rouge.  All  are  permanent  when  pure. 
When  Indian  red  is  toned  with  madder  lake  it  is 
frequently  called  tuscan  red  or  Pompeian  red.  Indian 
red  does  not  decompose  madder  lake. 


[132] 


Permanent  Painting 


INDIAN  YELLOW 

This  color  is  similar  in  many  of  its  characteristics 
to  gall  stone  yellow,  and  inasmuch  as  it  is  made  from 
the  excrement  of  camels,  its  coloring  matter  is  same- 
what  similar  to  the  biliary  coloring  matter,  and  while 
it  is  brilliant  and  transparent,  it  is  just  as  fugitive  as 
gall  stone  yellow,  and  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It 
dries  badly. 

INDIGO 

This  is  a color  extracted  from  the  indigo  plant  which 
grows  in  the  East  Indies,  and  has  been  in  use  for  many 
centuries.  It  is  used  both  as  an  oil  color  and  a water 
color  but  possesses  no  particular  advantage.  As  an 
oil  color  indigo  dries  very  slowly,  fades  when  exposed 
to  light,  is  destroyed  or  reduced  when  mixed  with 
chrome  yellow,  white  lead  and  the  majority  of  metallic 
paints.  It  can  be  safely  substituted  by  a mixture  of 
Prussian  blue  and  lamp  black,  or  better  still,  by  a mix- 
ture of  Antwerp  blue  and  lamp  black,  Antwerp  blue 
being  a reduced  form  of  Prussian  blue.  It  is  of  doubt- 
ful value,  and  it  is  a question  whether  any  of  the  old 
painters  used  it  to  any  great  extent.  While  it  is  ac- 
cepted that  it  makes  a very  desirable  green  when  mixed 
with  raw  sienna  or  a yellow  lake,  it  is  not  as  good  as 
a mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  raw  sienna,  and  as  yel  • 
low  lake  in  almost  any  form  is  fugitive  the  resulting 
color  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

Indigo  should  therefore  be  excluded  from  the  palette. 


[133] 


Permanent  Painting 


ITALIAN  PINK 

This  is  the  same  as  Dutch  pink  or  yellow  lake,  its 
name  is  a misnomer,  because  it  is  a transparent  olive 
yellow,  and  not  a paint.  It  is  quite  fugitive.  It  dries 
very  poorly  and  should  not  be  used. 


IVORY  BLACK 

Ivory  black  is  prepared  from  charred  ivory,  and 
contains  only  about  20%  of  carbon  black,  the  balance 
of  it  being  phosphate  of  lime  or  bone  material,  but  it 
is  unlike  any  other  black,  on  account  of  its  intensity. 
In  fact,  it  is  so  black  by  comparison,  that  on  an  ivory 
black  ground  a stripe  of  lamp  black  is  distinctly  dis- 
cernible, or  visa  versa,  a stripe  of  ivory  black  will  make 
a black  mark  on  lamp  black.  It  is  perfectly  perma- 
nent and  dries  very  well,  and  can  be  mixed  indiscrim- 
inately with  any  other  permanent  color. 

JAUNE  BRILLIANT 

This  is  also  known  under  the  name  of  bulliant  yel- 
low, its  name  being  a translation  from  the  French. 
It  is  made  in  two  ways,  the  one  producing  a permanent 
and  the  other  an  unreliable  pigment.  The  permanent 
brilliant  yellow  is  made  of  zinc  yellow  mixed  with 
zinc  oxide  to  give  it  hiding  power,  and  is  a brilliant, 
permanent  color.  By  the  other  method  one  part  chem- 


[134] 


Permanent  Painting 


ically  pure  lemon  chrome  yellow  is  mixed  with  twenty 
parts  of  white  lead.  The  latter  is  stronger  and  has 
more  hiding  power  than  the  former,  but  is  easily  af- 
fected by  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  is  not  as  perma- 
nent as  the  zinc  yellow.  It  dries  very  well  and  should 
be  used  alone. 

JACQUEMINOT  MADDER 

This  is  merely  a bluish  shade  of  madder,  very  strong, 
brilliant  and  permanent,  and  ranks  with  all  the  other 
madder  lakes.  It  dries  very  slowly  and  for  flower 
painting  is  absolutely  permanent  when  used  as  a glaze 
over  a dry  ground.  It  is  frequently  mixed  with  ivory 
black  to  produce  a brown  lake. 

KING’S  YELLOW 

This  is  prepared  in  several  ways.  Some  manufac- 
turers make  it  similar  to  the  formulas  of  brilliant  yel- 
low just  described.  Others  mix  chrome  yellow  and  flake 
white.  Formerly,  it  was  made  by  grinding  the  mineral 
orpiment,  which  is  a sulphide  of  arsenic,  and  has  been 
used  as  a pigment  for  several  thousand  years.  When 
used  absolutely  alone,  it  has  some  qualities  which  may 
recommend  it,  but  it  is  almost  impossible  to  use  a pig- 
ment of  this  kind  alone,  for  the  mere  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  drier  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the 
brilliancy  of  orpiment,  hence  manufacturers  have  been 


[ 135] 


Permanent  Painting 


led  to  make  it  by  using  zinc  yellow  or  chrome  yellow 
as  a base.  In  any  case,  orpiment  is  useless  and  not  to 
be  recommended,  as  King’s  yellow  has  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  brilliant  yellow  with  which  it  is  analogous. 


LAMP  BLACK 

This  pigment  is  now  made  by  condensing  the  smoke 
of  various  burning  coal  tar  oils.  It  is  almost  a pure 
form  of  carbon,  is  intensely  strong,  and  differs  from 
carbon  black  and  ivory  black  in  that  it  produces  a dis- 
tinctly bluish  gray  shade  when  mixed  with  white.  It 
is  a very  bad  drier,  and  remains  very  flexible  for  a 
long  time.  Therefore,  it  is  always  advisable,  when  a 
gray  is  to  be  made,  that  zinc  oxide  and  lamp  black 
be  used,  because  the  flexibility  of  lamp  black  overcomes 
the  brittleness  of  zinc.  Lamp  black  can  be  mixed  with 
any  other  pigment.  It  is  not  chemically  acted  upon,  nor 
is  it  acted  upon  by  light.  It  can  be  mixed  with  any 
pigment  and  is  absolutely  inert.  When  it  refuses  to 
dry  it  may  be  exposed  to  the  sunlight  and  fresh  air, 
which  hastens  the  drying  very  considerably.  Lamp 
black,  however,  may  be  mixed  with  drier  without  any 
harm,  but  sunlight  and  air  are  more  reliable. 

LEITCH’S  BLUE 

This  is  similar  in  some  respects  to  artificial  ultra- 
marine  blue,  but  not  as  permanent.  It  is  made  by 


[ 136] 


Permanent  Painting 


mixing  artificial  ultramarine  blue  and  Prussian  blue. 
An  old  variety  was  made  by  mixing  genuine  cobalt 
blue  and  Prussian  blue.  In  either  case  it  bleaches 
slightly,  and  is  not  as  reliable  as  either  cobalt  blue 
or  ultramarine  alone.  It  dries  better  than  ultramarine 
and  can  be  produced  on  the  palette.  It  has  a tendency 
to  turn  slightly  greenish  in  the  dark  but  revives  on 
exposure  to  light. 

LEMON  YELLOW 

This  may  be  either  chromate  of  barium  or  a chro- 
mate of  strontium,  and  has  many  of  the  characteristics 
of  a brilliant  yellow  lake,  and  at  the  same  time  is  much 
more  permanent  than  any  organic  color.  It  can  be 
mixed  with  almost  every  color,  excepting  those  con- 
taining hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  such  as  siennas  or 
ochres,  and  where  a yellow  lake  is  desired  of  excep- 
tional brilliancy,  a mixture  of  constant  white  and 
lemon  yellow  produces  very  desirable  results.  It  is 
similar  in  many  respects  to  chromate  of  zinc,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  a reliable,  permanent  color.  It  cannot 
supplant  zinc  yellow  and  may  therefore  be  omitted. 

LIGHT  RED 

The  author  finds  that  some  of  the  light  reds  on  the 
market  are  evidently  brilliant  shades  of  Indian  red, 
and  almost  pure  oxide  of  iron.  Others  are  mixtures 


[ 137] 


Permanent  Painting 


of  burnt  sienna  and  oxide  of  iron,  and  still  others  are 
forms  of  burnt  ochre,  which  are  oxides  of  iron  and 
clay.  In  any  case,  any  one  of  these  three  colors  are 
perfectly  permanent  and  reliable,  and  the  description 
for  Indian  red  would  hold  good  for  light  red.  All 
of  the  light  reds  are  good  driers,  and  we  find  that  from 
the  earliest  days  of  decoration  as  practiced  by  the 
Egyptians  down  to  the  present  day,  light  red  has  been 
used  by  all  painters.  When  mixed  with  zinc  white 
or  flake  white  the  tendency  for  light  red  is  to  darken 
slightly  and  become  brownish,  but  this  is  not  percepti- 
ble for  many  years,  and  only  occurs  upon  extreme  ex- 
posure. It  is  a very  reliable  pigment. 

MADDER  CARMINE,  MADDER  CARMINE 
EXTRA  AND  MADDER  LAKE 

These  are  lakes  prepared  from  the  madder  root  that 
differ  somewhat  as  to  shade  and  brilliancy.  They  are 
all  similar  in  composition  to  the  alizarins,  and  are  all 
permanent,  except  when  mixed  with  the  ochre  and 
sienna  pigments,  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  chrome 
green  and  metallic  pigments  of  that  nature.  The  mad- 
der lakes  should  only  be  used  as  glazes,  and  can  very 
safely  be  mixed  with  constant  white  to  produce  bril- 
liant and  more  roseate  shades.  They  all  dry  slowly 
and  when  they  “sadden”  they  can  be  revived  by  plac- 
ing them  in  the  sunlight  for  a few  hours. 


[138] 


Permanent  Painting 


MAGENTA 

Magenta  is  one  of  the  newer,  aniline  pigments, 
precipitated  on  an  alumina  base,  and  while  extremely 
brilliant  when  freshly  applied,  has  absolutely  no  value 
whatever  as  an  artistic  color.  In  one  week,  magenta 
bleaches  perceptibly,  and  is  very  easily  affected  by  any 
of  the  inorganic  pigments.  It  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended and  should  not  be  used. 

MALACHITE  GREEN:  ALSO  KNOWN  UNDER 
THE  NAME  OF  MOUNTAIN  GREEN 

This  pigment  was  known  to  the  Grecians,  and  is  also 
a semi-precious  jewel.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  huge 
slabs  and  used  in  the  making  of  table  tops,  pedestals 
and  other  articles  of  ornament.  It  is  a brilliant  miner- 
al green  streaked  with  a light  green,  and  is  a hy- 
drated carbonate  of  copper.  Whether  made  artifi- 
cially, or  prepared  from  the  green  mineral,  it  has  the 
serious  defect  that  it  is  affected  by  sulphur  gases,  and 
may  either  bleach  or  darken  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  gas  which  attacks  it,  but  when  properly  var- 
nished and  used  alone,  it  is  quite  permanent.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  there  are  other  greens  which  are  ab- 
solutely permanent,  and  from  which  similar  shades 
may  be  prepared,  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  use 
of  malachite  green. 

This  pigment  dries  well  and  has  been  used  for  over 
three  thousand  years.  It  was  well  known  to  the  an- 
cient Egyptians. 


[ 139] 


Permanent  Painting 


MARS  COLORS 

BROWN,  ORANGE,  RED,  VIOLET  AND  YELLOW 
MARS  BROWN 

This  is  a natural  color,  unburnt,  and  similar  in 
composition  to  raw  umber.  It  is  a very  good  drier, 
but  must  not  be  mixed  with  any  of  the  lakes.  Of  it- 
self, it  is  a perfectly  permanent  pigment. 


MARS  ORANGE 

This  has  sometimes  been  called  extract  of  burnt 
sienna,  because  it  is  composed  entirely  of  hydrated 
oxide  of  iron  which  has  been  properly  precipitated  and 
washed.  It  is  very  uniform  in  composition,  and  identi- 
cal with  ordinary  iron  rust.  It  has  generally  been  re- 
garded as  a perfectly  safe  and  permanent  pigment,  but 
this  is  not  a fact.  It  attacks  not  only  every  lake 
with  which  it  may  be  mixed,  but  is  such  a hard  drier 
that  it  has  a tendency  to  crack.  It  makes  most  beau- 
tiful, clear  yellowish  tints  when  mixed  with  zinc 
white,  and  when  diluted  with  constant  white,  it  has 
every  characteristic  of  a lake,  but  owing  to  its  chem- 
ical composition,  it  darkens  upon  extreme  exposure, 
and  the  beautiful  clear  tones  which  it  produces  when 
mixed  with  white  have  a tendency  to  sadden  upon 
exposure. 


[ 140] 


Permanent  Painting 


MARS  RED 

This  is  similar  in  all  respects  to  mars  orange,  with 
the  exception  that  it  has  been  heated  until  the  water 
of  combination  is  driven  off,  and  while  it  is  identical 
with  light  red,  it  is  much  more  transparent.  It  is  a 
soft,  permanent  color,  and  although  it  is  supposed  to 
affect  a number  of  lakes,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
it  does,  but  in  order  to  practice  precaution,  it  may  be 
wise  not  to  mix  it  with  several  of  the  lakes,  but  to 
use  the  lakes  over  it  as  a glazing  color.  It  dries  well, 
and  is  permanent. 


MARS  VIOLET 

Mars  violet  is  a very  dark  form  of  crocus  martis,  or 
Indian  red.  It  is  similar  to  the  color  known  as  caput 
mortum,  and  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a purple 
oxide  of  iron.  It  has  a distinctly  bluish  shade,  is  very 
durable,  dries  well  and  is  permanent  to  light. 


MARS  YELLOW 

Mars  yellow  has  also  been  called  extract  of  ochre, 
or  extract  of  raw  sienna,  because  it  is  composed  of 
the  coloring  matter  of  these  two  pigments.  It  fre- 
quently cannot  be  distinguished  from  a good  quality 
of  raw  sienna,  is  permanent,  dries  well  and  is  trans- 
lucent. It  has  been  suggested  frequently  that  mars 
yellow,  or  a good  form  of  raw  sienna  should  be  used 


[141] 


Permanent  Painting 


as  a substitute  for  the  yellow  lakes,  and  this  can  easily 
be  done  when  these  colors  are  mixed  with  constant 
white.  As  a glazing  color,  it  is  permanent,  but,  like 
all  of  the  oxides  of  iron  which  contain  water  in  combi- 
nation, it  must  not  be  mixed  with  an  organic  color 
such  as  any  one  of  the  lakes. 

MAUVE  AND  MAUVE  LAKE 

This  is  a most  undesirable  though  brilliant  color, 
which  begins  to  deteriorate  almost  the  same  day  that 
it  is  applied.  It  is  made  from  one  of  the  fugitive 
aniline  dyes,  hut  could  be  made  from  permanent  dyes, 
although  there  is  no  sample  on  the  market  which  the 
author  has  examined  that  is  fit  for  the  artist’s  palette. 
In  these  modern  days  mauve  lake  should  be  replaced 
by  a permanent  mauve  which  would  not  be  difficult  to 
produce,  and  which  would  be  as  permanent  as  madder, 
but  such  a pigment  does  not  exist,  to  the  best  of  the 
author’s  knowledge. 

MEGILP  (See  Copal  Megilp) 

MINERAL  GRAY 

This  is  a nondescript  color  which  is  made  from  a 
solid  gray  or  gang  rock,  and  tinted  with  the  blue  ot 
lapis  lazuli.  It  has  very  little  strength  or  tinctorial 
power.  Its  principal  characteristic  is  its  high  price. 
It  can  very  easily  be  imitated  by  a mixture  of  cheaper 


[142] 


Permanent  Painting 


colors  which  would  be  just  as  permanent.  It  has, 
however,  no  defects.  It  dries  well,  is  permanent  to 
light,  and  permanent  when  mixed  with  every  pigment 
excepting  those  containing  lead,  which  it  does  not 
affect  as  quickly  as  ultramarine  blue,  because  its  sul- 
phur content  is  so  extremely  low.  Zinc  white,  lamp 
black  and  a trace  of  ultramarine  produce  the  same 
shade. 


MINIUM 

Minium  is  a very  brilliant  orange  red.  It  is  a 
pure  form  of  oxide  of  lead  made  by  calcining  flake 
white.  Its  shade  is  similar  to  that  of  orange  vermilion. 
It  is  perfectly  permanent  to  light,  but  is  very  suscepti- 
ble to  the  action  of  sulphureted  hydrogen.  It  has  the 
same  shade  as  scarlet  quick  silver  vermilion,  and  is  a 
powerful  drier.  It  is  best  to  use  it  alone  and  it  ought 
to  be  varnished  as  soon  as  possible.  When  not  var- 
nished it  bleaches  to  a straw  color  on  long  exposure, 
which  is  due  to  the  acid  gases  in  the  air. 


MONO  CHROME  TINTS 

These  are  mixtures  of  white  lead,  raw  umber,  burnt 
umber,  lamp  black,  ivory  black,  etc.,  and  on  account 
of  the  lead  content  are  affected  by  sulphureted  hy- 
drogen. which  tends  to  darken  them.  When  these 
colors  are  made  on  a zinc  white  base  they  are  much 


[143] 


Permanent  Painting 


more  permanent,  in  fact,  may  be  regarded  as  perfectly 
permanent.  They  dry  well  and  can  be  reproduced  on 
the  palette. 


MUMMY 

Mummy  is  a form  of  bitumen  or  asphaltum  used 
as  a glazing  color.  It  was  supposed  to  be  permanent, 
because  the  bitumen  or  asphaltum  which  is  found  in 
the  mummy  cases  was  assumed  to  be  permanent,  be- 
cause it  was  so  old,  and  had  not  undergone  any  change 
in  its  drying  condition ; but  when  used  as  an  oil  color, 
it  is  treacherous,  and  should  not  be  used  for  the  same 
reason  that  no  asphaltum  or  bitumen  should  be  used. 
It  retards  the  drying  of  an  otherwise  good  color,  and 
is  to  be  condemned  from  every  point  of  view. 


NAPLES  YELLOW 

The  old  Naples  yellow  was  a mixture  of  litharge, 
or  oxide  of  lead  and  sulphide  of  antimony,  a most  un- 
stable color  which  frequently  decomposed  itself,  but 
for  many  years  color  manufacturers  have  imitated  it 
by  mixing  cadmium,  yellow,  ochre  and  white,  and  some 
manufacturers  produce  better  and  more  permanent 
Naples  yellow  than  others.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  this  pigment  may  be  a mixture  of  deep  orange  cad- 
mium and  zinc  white,  in  which  case  it  is  exceedingly 
permanent,  but  where  the  zinc  white  is  replaced  by 


[144] 


Permanent  Painting 


white  lead  or  flake  white,  it  is  easily  affected  by  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen.  Except  for  convenience  there  is 
no  necessity  for  having  this  as  a separate  color,  for 
the  painter  can  mix  up  any  shade  of  Naples  yellow 
to  suit  himself. 

NAPLES  YELLOW  REDDISH 

Naples  yellow  reddish  is  the  same  as  any  Naples  yel- 
low, except  that  the  orange  form  of  cadmium  has 
been  used,  or  a slight  tinge  or  oxide  of  iron  added  to 
the  zinc  white.  Either  form  of  imitation  Naples  yel- 
low is  superior  to  the  natural  and  is  practically  per- 
manent, which  cannot  be  said  of  the  genuine. 

NEUTRAL  TINT 

This  is  a complex  mixture  of  ultramarine,  sienna, 
lamp  black  or  ochre  and  lamp  black,  and  under  all 
circumstances  is  an  excellent  color  which  is  perfectly 
permanent.  It  can  be  reproduced  on  the  palette  and  is 
bought  only  for  convenience.  It  dries  well. 

NEUTRAL  ORANGE 

Neutral  orange  is  a permanent  color  also  of  a com- 
plex mixture.  It  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of 
mars  orange,  but  sometimes  is  made  by  mixing  a bril- 
liant yellow,  free  from  lead,  with  a bright  oxide  of 
iron.  When  made  from  cadmium  yellow,  it  is  quite 


[145] 


Permanent  Painting 


expensive,  but  when  made  from  zinc  yellow  or  barium 
yellow,  it  is  not  quite  as  strong  in  hiding  power,  but 
is  very  desirable.  The  color  dries  well. 

NEW  BLUE 

New  blue  is  an  artificial  ultramarine  blue  of  the 
cobalt  shade,  perfectly  permanent,  excepting  when 
mixed  with  white  lead  or  flake  white,  or  any  other 
color  containing  lead.  It  must  not  be  used  in  con- 
junction with  a lead  drier.  By  itself  it  is  absolutely 
permanent  and  dries  well. 

NOTTINGHAM  WHITE 

This  is  a form  of  white  lead  or  flake  white,  which 
is  described  under  the  heading  of  flake  white. 

OLIVE  GREEN 

Olive  green  is  a beautiful  pigment,  composed  of  a 
mixture  of  yellow  lake  and  Prussian  blue.  It  is  not 
permanent  and  should  not  be  used,  for  it  dries  badly 
and  fades. 

Olive  green  may  be  made  of  raw  sienna  and  Prus- 
sian blue,  in  which  case  it  dries  well  and  is  absolutely 
permanent,  and  when  mixed  with  constant  white 
(blanc  fixe)  or  diluted  with  blanc  de  lacque  (alumina 
hydrate)  produces  a lake  of  any  degree  of  transpar- 
ency. 


[146] 


Permanent  Painting 


Olive  green  or  olive  green  lake  must  not  be  mixed 
with  any  other  lake. 

OLIVE  LAKE 

Olive  lake  is  a mixture  of  ultramarine  blue  and  yel- 
low lake  which  fades  and  is  unreliable.  The  mixture 
described  under  the  paragraph  on  olive  green  is  to  be 
recommended  in  its  place. 

OLIVE  MADDER 

Olive  madder  is  a misnomer,  there  being  no  true 
madder  lake  which  is  green,  but  a mixture  of  ultra- 
marine  blue  and  certain  forms  of  raw  sienna  or  Prus- 
sian blue  and  sienna  produce  an  olive  green  which 
is  exceedingly  permanent,  and,  although  somewhat 
muddy,  can  be  very  safely  used,  except  in  the  presence 
of  lead  pigments.  It  is  a very  good  drier. 

ORANGE  MINERAL  (See  Minium) 
ORANGE  VERMILION  (See  Vermilion) 
ORANGE  MADDER 

A scarlet  madder  mixed  with  an  aniline  yellow  or  a 
yellow  lake  like  Dutch  pink  or  Italian  yellow.  This  is 
a most  undesirable  pigment  which  remains  wet  for 
weeks  and  in  the  end,  fades.  There  is,  however,  no 


[147] 


Permanent  Painting 


reason  why  a lake  color  of  an  orange  shade  cannot  be 
made  from  the  para  yellows  or  para  reds,  but  the  au- 
thor has  not  found  any  on  the  market. 

ORIENT  MADDER 

Orient  madder  is  a deep  variety  of  cadmium  yellow, 
and  has  all  the  permanent  characteristics  of  the  cad- 
mium series  of  colors.  It  is  diluted  with  blanc  de 
laque  (alumina  hydrate)  and  has  almost  as  much  trans- 
lucency  as  a true  lake,  but  dries  very  slowly. 

ORPIMENT 

Orpiment  is  the  same  as  King’s  yellow,  and  was 
originally  a sulphide  of  arsenic.  Some  samples  of 
orpiment  still  found  on  the  market  are  the  arsenic 
color,  and  as  such  are  not  recommended.  The  same 
shade  may  be  produced  by  mixing  various  yellows 
and  whites.  The  true  orpiment  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

OXIDE  OF  CHROMIUM  (See  French  Veronese  Green) 

OXIDE  OF  CHROMIUM,  TRANSPARENT 
(See  French  Veronese  Green) 

OXFORD  OCHRE 

This  is  a muddy  grade  of  ochre  found  in  England, 
very  permanent,  and  containing  more  oxide  of  iron 


[148] 


Permanent  Painting 


than  the  French  ochre.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a base 
for  red  pigments,  and  that  is  done  when  the  ochre 
is  heated  to  a red  heat  so  that  all  the  water  of  combi- 
nation is  driven  off,  and  the  hydrated  iron  is  changed 
into  a true  oxide.  It  is  perfectly  permanent,  except 
when  mixed  with  the  lakes.  When  burnt  and  sold 
under  the  name  of  burnt  ochre,  it  is  similar  to  some 
of  the  shades  of  mars  orange. 

PAYNE’S  GRAY 

Payne’s  gray  is  a mixture  of  black,  ochre  and  blue, 
and  is  permanent  if  the  blue  used  is  ultramarine.  The 
water  color  Payne’s  gray  is  a different  mixture  which 
is  not  permanent.  It  dries  slowly. 

PERMANENT  BLUE  (See  Ultramarine  Blue) 
PERMANENT  GREEN  (See  Viridian) 
PERMANENT  VIOLET 

This  may  be  a mineral  color  com.posed  of  phosphate 
of  manganese,  and  when  so  prepared  is  not  permanent 
by  any  means,  and  does  not  deserve  the  name,  or  it 
may  be  a mixture  of  cobalt  blue  and  madder  lake 
which  is  more  permanent,  but  the  painter  is  referred 
to  other  violets  which  can  be  made  from  permanent 
pigments,  and  should  be  used  in  place  of  the  so-called 
permanent  violets. 


[149] 


Permanent  Painting 


Violet  ultramarine  is  the  most  reliable  of  the  violets 
but  should  not  be  mixed  with  any  color  excepting,  per- 
haps, constant  white  (blanc  fixe)  and  zinc  white.  It 
is  as  transparent  as  a lake,  and  remains  brilliant  even  in 
the  bright  sunlight. 


PERMANENT  WHITE 

This  is  a pure  zinc  oxide  described  under  the  chap- 
ter on  zinc  white,  dries  slowly  and  is  permanent. 

PERMANENT  YELLOW 

This  is  a mixture  of  chromate  of  barium  and  zinc 
white,  or  chromate  of  zinc  and  zinc  white.  The  color 
is  rather  weak,  but  can  be  safely  used  with  chromium 
oxide  or  the  viridian  colors,  and  is  not  afifected  by 
sulphur  gases  or  light.  Generally  it  is  a very  safe  col- 
or to  use,  but  dries  rather  slowly.  It  is  also  known 
as  canary  yellow. 

PINK  MADDER 

This  is  a weak  variety  of  madder  lake  made  from 
alizarin  or  madder  root.  It  is  permanent  and  safe  to 
use  when  not  mixed  with  ochre,  lead,  or  any  one  of 
the  chemical  pigments.  When  used  as  a glaze  over  a 
perfectly  dry  surface,  it  is  quite  permanent,  although 
bright  sunlight  bleaches  it  to  a very  slight  extent 


[150] 


Permanent  Painting 


after  the  lapse  of  two  years.  It  is  a bad  drier,  but 
under  no  circumstances  must  it  be  mixed  with  a drying 
oil,  because  all  the  drying  oils  contain  metallic  sub- 
stances in  solution  which  act  deleteriously  on  all  of 
the  madders.  The  best  way  to  dry  pink  madder  or  any 
madder  lake  is  to  use  well  settled,  old,  raw  linseed  oil, 
and  then  expose  the  picture  to  the  bright  light,  for  the 
sun  will  dry  madder  lake  without  decomposing  it.  As 
this  color  is  largely  used  as  a glaze  it  is  the  frequent 
cause  of  cracks. 

PRIMROSE  AUREOLIN  (See  Aureolin) 
PRIMROSE  YELLOW 

This  is  a pale  variety  of  chromate  of  zinc,  or  it  may 
be  a mixture  of  chromate  of  zinc  and  chromate  of 
barium,  or  it  may  be  composed  of  chromate  of  zinc 
and  oxide  of  zinc.  In  any  one  of  these  cases,  it  is 
a safe,  permanent,  reliable  color.  It  dries  fairly  well, 
particularly  when  exposed  to  light.  It  is  not  affected 
by  sulphur  gases  but  cannot  be  mixed  with  a lake 
color. 


PRUSSIAN  BLUE 

Prussian  blue  is  a chemical  compound  which  is  made 
from  the  cyanogen  obtained  from  certain  organic  sub- 
stances such  as  leather,  horn,  feathers,  etc.  There 


[151] 


Permanent  Painting 


is  a great  variety  of  colors  made  in  this  manner,  all 
of  which  are  ferro-cyanides  of  iron.  They  are  called 
steel  blue,  Chinese  blue,  Milori  blue,  bronze  blue,  Prus- 
sian blue,  Paris  blue,  Antwerp  blue,  etc.  All  of  these 
colors  are  intensely  rich,  strong  and  inimitable,  yet 
the  pigment  cannot  be  safely  recommended  for  in- 
discriminate mixtures.  When  Prussian  blue  or  any 
of  its  analogues  are  mixed  with  white  lead  of  flake 
white,  the  rich  sky  blue  or  greenish  tint  which  will 
result  bleaches  over  night  into  a sickly  green,  but  on 
exposure  to  the  light  for  an  hour,  it  comes  back  to  its 
original  color.  This  is  a chemical  effect  known  to 
chemists  as  “reduction.”  For  certain  purposes,  Prus- 
sian blue  is  safe  and  permanent.  Several  of  the  ultra- 
marines  mixed  with  black  will  give  a shade  or  tint 
which  will  approximate  Prussian  blue,  but  rather  than 
take  any  chances  the  painter  is  advised  to  avoid  the 
use  of  Prussian  blue,  or  any  color  which  may  be  partly 
composed  of  this  material,  excepting  for  sky  effects 
when  mixed  with  zinc.  The  so-called  chrome  greens 
are  Prussian  blue  mixed  with  yellow,  and  although  they 
are  strong  and  brilliant,  they  lose  their  brilliancy 
after  some  years. 

Prussian  blue  is  a good  drier,  and  when  used  alone 
is  perfectly  permanent,  provided  it  is  unglazed  or 
painted  over  a solid  ground.  When  varnished  with 
an  oil  varnish,  or  when  mixed  with  megilp  or  copal, 
it  turns  green,  but  used  by  itself  the  author  can  pos- 
itively state  that  in  three  years  it  shows  no  change. 


[152] 


Permanent  Painting 


It  has  very  great  opacity,  and  is  similar  to  indigo  in 
appearance.  It  is  far  superior  to  indigo  and  is  a good 
drier. 

The  Prussian  blues  can  be  safely  mixed  with  'zinc 
and  the  sienna  colors. 

PRUSSIAN  BROWN 

When  Prussian  blue  is  heated,  and  the  cyanogen 
driven  off,  it  is  converted  into  a form  of  oxide  of  iron, 
which  has  a rich,  deep,  chocolate  color  that  is  abso- 
lutely permanent  and  perfectly  reliable,  and  is  such  a 
stable  compound  that  when  mixed  with  madder  lake 
it  does  not  decompose  the  madder.  It  is  not  only  a 
good  drier,  but  a flexible  drier,  and  after  a lapse  of 
many  years  Prussian  brown  remains  soft  and  flex- 
ible without  showing  any  tendency  whatever  to  crack. 
It  is  frequently  used  mixed  with  burnt  umber,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  burnt  umber  from  drying  too  hard. 
It  is  also  made  by  subjecting  Prussian  blue  to  ammonia, 
but  this  pigment  is  not  as  stable  as  the  color  made  by 
the  hot  or  burning  process. 


PRUSSIAN  GREEN 

Prussian  green  is  a mixture  of  yellow  lake  and 
Prussian  blue,  undesirable  and  unreliable.  A better 
and  more  permanent  Prussian  green  can  be  made  by 
mixing  raw  sienna  with  Prussian  blue. 


[153] 


Permanent  Painting 


PURE  SCARLET  (See  Scarlet) 

PURPLE  LAKE 

Purple  lake  is  a deep,  crimson  lake,  generally  made 
from  the  extract  of  hypernic,  which  is  a variety  of 
wood  lake,  and  is  not  much  more  permanent  than  one 
of  the  aniline  lakes.  It  possesses  no  quality  which 
should  recommend  it  in  preference  to  purple  madder, 
which  is  very  much  more  permanent. 


PURPLE  MADDER 

This  is  a deep  variety  of  madder  lake,  just  as  per- 
manent as  any  one  of  the  madders,  but  it  must  not 
be  mixed  with  a metallic  drier,  or  with  any  one  of  the 
lead  pigments  or  ochres.  It  is  a slow  drier,  but  its 
drying  can  be  hastened  by  exposure  to  sunlight. 


RAW  SIENNA 

This  is  one  of  the  safest  pigments  to  use,  and  works 
well  with  every  color,  except  the  lake  colors.  In  com- 
position it  is  similar  to  ochre,  with  the  exception  that 
it  is  four  times  as  strong,  or  in  other  words,  contains 
four  times  as  much  iron,  but  the  iron  which  it  con- 
tains is  the  hydrated  form.,  hence  the  color  is  translu- 
cent. It  is  composed  of  a native  earth  originally  found 
in  and  near  Sienna,  Italy,  and  was  used  by  the  ancient 


[154] 


Permanent  Painting 


painters.  There  are  a large  variety  of  raw  siennas, 
some  of  which  approach  closely  a yellow  lake.  All 
of  them  are  more  or  less  adapted  for  the  purpose  of 
glazing.  Sienna  when  used  in  dilute  form  is  almost 
transparent,  and  under  any  circumstances  excepting 
those  mentioned,  is  absolutely  permanent  with  the 
possible  exception  that  it  darkens  very  slightly  after 
many  years.  A mixture  of  raw  sienna  and  white  lead 
or  zinc  white  becomes  more  mellow  in  time.  It  is  a 
good  drier. 


RAW  UMBER 

This  pigment  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  raw  sienna, 
with  the  exception  that  it  contains  manganese,  and 
is  found  not  only  in  Italy  but  in  certain  parts  of  Ger- 
many, Cypress  and  Turkey,  and  among  paint  manu- 
facturers the  name  of  Turkey  raw  umber  is  applied 
to  practically  all  the  umbers  which  are  found  in  south- 
ern Europe. 

It  is  a translucent  color  having  a peculiar  olive 
brown  shade,  and  cannot  be  said  to  be  uniform  for 
there  are  raw  umbers  which  vary  in  shade  from,  a light 
yellowish  olive  to  a very  deep  brownish  green.  It  is 
a most  excellent  drier,  but  has  a decomposing  effect 
upon  lake  colors.  It  may  be  very  safely  used  as  a 
glaze,  and  like  the  siennas  it  has  a tendency  to  darken 
very  slightly. 

It  is  a very  strong  drier  and  is  often  used  like  burnt 
umber  with  black  to  hasten  the  drying  of  the  black. 


[155] 


Permanent  Painting 


It  is  permanent  when  used  alone  and  permanent  when 
mixed  with  blacks,  umbers,  siennas,  ochres  and  zinc 
white. 


REMBRANDT’S  MADDER  AND 
RUBEN’S  MADDER 

It  is  very  likely  that  Rembrandt,  Ruben  and  Franz 
Hals  used  madder  lake,  but  Franz  Hals  evidently  was 
better  acquainted  with  its  technical  use  than  any  other 
painter  of  his  time.  The  brilliant,  rubicund  flesh  tints 
are  almost  perfectly  preserved  to-day,  and  a minute 
careful  examination  reveals  the  fact  that  he  used 
madder  lake  as  a glaze  only  after  the  under-coats  were 
thoroughly  dry. 

Why  these  particular  shades  of  madder  should  be 
called  Ruben’s  madder  and  Rembrandt’s  madder  is 
merely  a question  of  sentiment,  as  none  of  the  lakes 
known  under  that  name  differ  materially  from  any 
other  madder  lakes.  In  any  case,  they  are  reliable 
when  kept  away  from  the  ochre  or  lead  colors,  and  are 
perfectly  reliable  when  glazed  over  the  dry  colors 
which  otherwise  decompose  them. 

ROMAN  OCHRE 

Roman  ochre  is  a native  ochre,  identical  in  compo- 
sition with  French  ochre  or  Oxford  ochre,  and  has 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  a mixture  of  ochre  and 
raw  sienna.  It  is  stronger  in  tinting  power  than  the 


[156] 


Permanent  Painting 


French  ochre,  which  would  indicate  that  it  is  a species 
of  sienna,  perfectly  permanent  and  reliable,  excepting 
with  lakes. 

ROMAN  OCHRE,  COOL 

The  description  of  Roman  ochre  answers  this,  only 
it  is  a different  shade. 

ROMAN  SEPIA  (See  Sepia) 

ROSE  DOREE 

This  is  a yellowish  shade  of  madder,  and  the  general 
description  of  all  the  madder  lakes  applies  to  this  pig- 
ment. 


ROSE  LAKE 

Rose  lake  is  an  aniline  color,  precipitated  on  alum- 
ina, exceedingly  brilliant  when  first  applied,  but  per- 
fectly unreliable  and  not  to  be  recommended  for  any 
painting  purposes  whatever. 

ROSE  MADDER,  RUBEN’S  MADDER 
(See  Madder  Lake) 

SAP  GREEN 

Originally  this  was  a transparent  green  lake  which 
was  extracted  from  myrtle  leaves,  and  known  under 


[157] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  chemical  name  of  chlorophyll.  Whether  used  as 
an  oil  color  or  a water  color,  it  is  thoroughly  unre- 
liable, because  if  it  is  a green  made  from  the  green 
coloring  matter  of  certain  plants,  it  will  turn  to  a 
brilliant  yellow  in  the  presence  of  white  lead  during 
the  process  of  drying,  and  will  turn  dark  green  again 
after  it  is  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  unreliable  and  not 
to  be  recommended.  Tbe  sap  greens  sold  in  tube 
colors,  however,  are  mixtures  of  yellow  lake,  Prussian 
blue  or  ultramarine  blue,  and  in  any  case  are  not  per- 
manent to  light  and  therefore  should  be  excluded.  It 
dries  very  badly. 


SCARLET  RED 

When  this  color  is  made  of  a very  deep  orange 
chrome  yellow,  it  can  easily  be  detected  by  its  exces- 
sive weight.  A tube  of  it  lying  on  the  palm  of  the 
hand  feels  as  if  it  were  lead.  In  reality  it  is  a lead 
color  toned  with  orange  mineral.  It  may  be  made  also 
entirely  of  orange  mineral,  which  is  a form  of  red 
lead  and  minium.  Its  principal  defect  is  that  it  is 
easily  attacked  by  sulpbureted  hydrogen.  Inasmuch 
as  scarlet  red  and  orange  mineral  are  both  identical 
in  shade  with  orange  vermilion,  it  is  much  safer  to  use 
orange  vermilion,  although  orange  mineral  or  scarlet 
red,  when  properly  varnished  and  not  mixed  with  any 
color,  is  permanent. 


[158] 


Permanent  Painting 


SCARLET  LAKE 

This  is  madder  lake  mixed  with  orange  mineral,  and 
lately  the  author  has  seen  samples  of  scarlet  lake  which 
were  composed  of  orange  mineral  stained  with  paran- 
itraniline  red.  Madder  scarlet  has  a slight  tendency 
to  bleach,  and  a para  scarlet  has  a slight  tendency  to 
darken.  The  safest  course  would  therefore  be  to  use 
any  shade  of  quick  silver  vermilion,  and  when  dry 
glaze  it  with  madder. 

SCARLET  MADDER  (See  Madder  Lake) 
SCARLET  VERMILION  (See  Orange  Vermilion) 
SEPIA 

Sepia  is  either  the  juice  of  the  cuttle-fish,  which 
this  fish  uses  as  a form  of  natural  protection,  or  is 
the  extract  of  walnut.  The  cuttle-fish,  when  passing 
through  a dangerous  zone,  obscures  the  water  by  eject- 
ing an  organic  coloring  matter,  and  then  hides  in  this 
darkened  zone.  As  an  oil  color,  neither  of  these  ex- 
tracts are  of  much  use,  although  walnut  stain  gives  a 
very  transparent  glaze,  but  takes  so  long  to  dry  that 
it  cannot  be  recommended.  Painters,  as  a rule,  mix 
their  own  sepia  for  oil  color,  one  form  being  a mixture 
of  madder  lake  and  burnt  umber,  which  is  very 
perm.anent,  and  another  form  being  carbon  black  and 


[159] 


Permanent  Painting 


Vandyke  brown.  However,  lampblack,  raw  sienna  and 
burnt  umber  make  a very  permanent  sepia  which,  for 
glazing,  is  thoroughly  reliable,  and  which  dries  very 
well. 


SILVER  WHITE 

This  is  a precipitated  white  lead.  The  painter  can 
very  well  omit  this  pigment  from  his  palette  for  zinc 
white  or  permanent  white  could  be  substituted. 


SKY  BLUE 

This  is  a yellowish  shade  of  blue,  composed,  as  a 
rule,  of  ultramarine  blue  very  faintly  tinted  with  zinc 
yellow.  It  is  a very  permanent  color  and  dries  well.  It 
is  easy  for  the  painter  to  mix  his  own  shades  for  skies. 

SMALT 

This  is  powdered  blue  glass,  which  has  been  col- 
ored with  oxide  of  cobalt.  It  has,  of  course,  no  hiding 
power,  and  the  principal  excuse  for  its  use  is  the  lum- 
inous effects  which  it  produces.  It  is  perfectly  per- 
manent, and  finds  its  principal  use  for  painting  trans- 
parencies on  glass.  When  sold  as  an  oil  color,  in  tubes, 
it  is  really  ground  and  mixed  in  a vehicle  of  gum 
arable  and  glycerine,  and  unless  the  painter  is  familiar 
with  it,  it  is  likely  to  curl  from  any  oily  surface  to 


[160] 


Permanent  Painting 


which  it  may  be  applied,  and  thus  defeats  the  object 
of  its  use. 


TERRE  ROSE 

This  is  a translucent  clay  colored  with  red  oxide  of 
iron,  and  when  the  red  oxide,  from  which  it  is  made, 
is  thoroughly  burnt  and  washed,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  permanent  under  all  conditions.  It  dries  very  well 
and  works  freely  under  the  brush. 


TERRE  VERTE 

This  is  a bluish  green  transparent  color  which  is  a 
clay  tinted  with  a green  hydrated  oxide  of  iron.  It 
has  always  been  regarded  as  a permanent  glazing  col- 
or, but  it  is  permanent  only  after  it  is  varnished,  but 
never  before.  The  iron  oxide  in  terre  verte  is  of 
such  a chemical  nature  that  it  changes  slightly,  and  this 
process  of  decomposition  is  quite  well  understood  by 
chemists.  It  has  a disastrous  effect  upon  the  lake 
colors,  and  therefore  it  is  much  safer  to  use  it  alone. 

TOUR’S  ORANGE  MINERAL,  OR  TOUR’S  RED 

This  is  a French  oxide  of  lead  made  by  calcining 
white  lead.  It  has  the  brilliant  color  of  orange  quick 
silver  vermilion,  and  is  perfectly  permanent  to  light. 
It  is  quickly  affected  by  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and 


[161] 


Permanent  Painting 


bleaches  or  pales  slightly  when  subjected  to  sulphur 
acids.  These  defects,  however,  are  not  apparent  after 
it  is  varnished.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  quick  silver 
vermilion,  but  not  as  reliable.  It  is  an  excellent  drier. 
It  is  also  used  as  a base  for  making  the  vermilion 
substitutes,  because  it  does  not  saponify  or  become 
hard  in  the  tube.  There  are  a large  variety  of  these 
substitute  vermilions,  some  of  them  stained  with  para 
red  and  some  stained  with  madder.  The  para  red 
vermilions  darken  in  the  sunlight,  but  the  madder 
vermilions  are  more  permanent.  As  a ground  color 
Tour’s  red  or  orange  mineral  is  very  reliable. 

TRANSPARENT  GOLD  OCHRE 

This  is  a species  of  ochre  similar  to  Roman  ochre, 
and  is  really  a form  of  raw  sienna.  The  description 
of  raw  sienna  applies  to  this  pigment. 


TUSCAN  RED 

When  madder  lake  is  precipitated  on  Indian  red 
as  a base  and  a pigment  is  formed  which  has  a dull, 
rose  shade  that  may  be  regarded  as  absolutely  perma- 
nent. There  is  a painting  in  the  National  Gallery  of 
London,  by  Hubert  Van  Eyck,  of  a man  with  a rose 
colored  cloak,  in  which  the  colors  evidently  used  were 
oxide  of  iron  and  madder  lake  over  a white  ground. 
The  author  finds  that  some  of  the  Indian  reds  on  the 


[162] 


Permanent  Painting 


market  are  oxides  of  iron  stained  with  madder,  and, 
as  stated  in  a previous  chapter,  when  oxide  of  iron 
is  thoroughly  burnt  so  that  it  contains  no  water  of 
combination,  it  does  not  decompose  madder  lake. 
Tuscan  red  dries  very  well  and  is  very  reliable. 


ULTRAMARINE  BLUE 

Ultramarine  blue  whether  it  is  artificial  or  genuine 
is  chemically  the  same,  with  the  one  difference  that 
the  genuine  ultramarine  blue  is  the  powdered  mineral 
known  as  lapis  lazuli,  and  ordinarily  is  the  blue  known 
under  that  name,  but  the  mineral  itself  is  found  at  times 
in  an  impure  state  either  admixed  with  slate  or  gang- 
rock,  or  contaminated  slightly  with  other  minerals,  and 
the  genuine  ultramarine  blue  may  run,  therefore,  from 
a very  deep  blue  to  a very  pale  ashen  blue,  in  fact, 
the  lapis  lazuli  which  lies  adjacent  to  the  gang-rock  is 
ground  up  and  sold  under  the  name  of  ultramarine 
ashes,  which  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a very 
weak  variety  of  genuine  ultramarine  blue. 

From  the  standpoint  of  exposure  to  light  or  drying 
quality,  the  artificial  ultramarine  is  just  as  good  as  the 
genuine,  and  the  only  advantage  that  the  genuine  has 
over  the  artificial  is  that  the  genuine  is  not  so  quickly 
affected  by  acids  as  the  artificial  is. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  that  in  1814  Tessaert 
observed  the  accidental  production  in  a soda  oven  at 
St.  Gobain  (France)  of  a blue  substance  which 


L 163] 


Permanent  Painting 


Vanquelin  declared  to  be  identical  with  lapis  lazuli. 

In  the  following  year  the  same  observation  was 
made  by  Huhlmann  (at  St.  Gobain,  in  a sulphate 
oven)  and  by  Hermann  in  the  soda  works  at  Schoene- 
beck  (Prussia). 

In  1824  La  Societe’d’Encouragement  pour  Indus- 
trie offered  a prize  of  6000  francs  for  the  production 
of  artificial  ultramarine  which,  in  1828,  was  awarded 
to  J.  B.  Guinet,  a pharmacist  of  Toulouse,  later  of 
Lyons,  who  asserted  that  he  first  produced  ultramarine 
in  1826.  Vanquelin  was  one  of  the  three  “trustees” 
holding  the  secret  contrary  to  the  rule  of  the  Societe’. 

In  December,  1828,  Gmelin  of  Goettingen  explained 
his  process  of  making  artificial  ultramarine  before  the 
Acadamie  des  Sciences  of  Paris.  He  used  as  the  basis 
a mixture  of  precipitated  hydrate  of  alumina  and  silex, 
which  was,  later  on,  superseded  by  China  clay  (kaolin). 

In  1829  Koettig  produced  ultramarine  at  the  Royal 
Saxon  Porcelain  factory  at  Meissen. 

In  1834  Leverkus,  at  Wermelskirchen,  and  later  at 
Leverkusen,  on  the  Rhine,  produced  the  pigment. 

In  1837  Leykauf  & Zeltner,  at  Nueremberg,  intro- 
duced the  manufacture  of  ultramarine  into  Germany. 

Prices  of  ultramarine  in  1830: 


Natural  $50.25  per  pound 

Artificial  4.05  per  pound 


Ultramarine  is  composed  of  alumina,  silica,  soda 
and  sulphur,  as  follows : 

Ultramarine  (pure  blue)  containing  a minimum  of 


[164] 


Permanent  Painting 


silica  seems  to  be  a more  or  less  well  defined  chemical 
body,  i.  e.,  a double  silicate  of  sodium  and  aluminum 
with  sulphur  as  a poly-sulphide  of  sodium,  or  as  a 


thio-sulphate. 

Poor 

Rich 

Ultramarines 

in  Silica 

in  Silica 

Alumina 

29 

23.70 

Silica  

38.50 

40.80 

Soda  

22.50 

19.30 

Sulphur  

8.20 

13.60 

Undecomposed  

1.80 

2.60 

100.00 

100.00 

R.  Hoffman  gives  the  following  proportions : 

Alumina  Silica 


Poor  in  silica  100  128 

Rich  in  silica  100  170 

In  resistance  to  alum  the  dififerent  products  rank  as 
follows : 

Lapis  Lazuli  first 

Artif.  Ultramarine  (rich  in  silica) second 

Artif.  Ultramarine  (poor  in  silica)  third 


In  1859  Leykauf  discovered  the  purple  and  red 
varieties  of  ultramarine  which  were  produced  by  the 
action  of  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids,  and  by  heating 
ultramarine  with  calcium  chloride,  magnesium  chloride 
and  various  other  chemicals.  In  this  way  there  were 
produced  a variety  of  shades,  and  by  the  addition  of 
such  substances  as  silver,  selenium  and  tellurium,  even 
yellow,  brown,  purple  and  green  shades  were  produced. 

All  of  these  colored  ultramarines  are  exceedingly 


[165] 


Permanent  Painting 


permanent  to  light,  but  have  little  or  no  hiding  power, 
and  when  used  alone  are  perfectly  permanent. 

The  ultramarine  blue  which  is  made  by  means  of  a 
potash  salt  instead  of  a soda  salt  has  every  analogy 
of  color  and  shade  to  genuine  cobalt  blue,  excepting 
that  the  genuine  cobalt  blue  is  not  affected  by  acids 
as  rapidly  as  the  artificial. 

ULTRAMARINE,  GENUINE  (See  Ultramarine  Blue) 
ULTRAMARINE  ASH 

This  may  be  called  a weak  variety  of  ultramarine 
blue  either  artificial  or  natural.  It  is  obtained  when 
artificial  ultramarine  blue  is  mixed  with  clay,  or  when 
natural  lapis  lazuli  is  mixed  with  the  gang  rock  oi 
native  earth  that  surrounds  it.  Both  the  genuine  and 
the  artificial  ultramarines  are  perfectly  permanent  when 
used  alone,  and  permanent  when  mixed  with  zinc 
white  and  cadmium  yellow,  but  not  permanent  when 
mixed  with  flake  white  or  any  color  that  may  contain 
lead. 


VANDYKE  BROWN 

Vandyke  brown  is  a native  earth,  and  is  identical 
with  cassel  brown.  It  is  popularly  supposed  that  Van- 
dyke first  used  this  pigment  as  a glazing  color  in  place 
of  bitumen,  and  as  it  is  composed  of  clay,  iron  oxide, 
decomposed  wood  and  some  bituminous  products,  it 


[166] 


Permanent  Painting 


is  fairly  translucent  and  adapts  itself  for  glazing  pur- 
poses. Because  of  the  bitumen  which  it  contains,  it 
dries  very  badly  and  very  slowly,  and  has  a tendency 
to  crack  or  wrinkle  if  the  under-coat  is  either  too  hard 
or  too  soft.  Concerning  its  permanence,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  it  darkens  considerably  on  exposure 
like  all  the  bituminous  compounds,  and  many  painters 
use  a permanent  glaze  composed  of  a mixture  of  ochre 
and  black  tinted  with  umber.  Where  the  effect  of  age 
is  to  be  simulated,  there  is  no  objection  to  its  use. 


VANDYKE  MADDER 

This  is  a madder  lake  mixed  with  either  Vandyke 
brown,  umber  or  black.  If  the  artist  prepares  the  pig- 
ment himself,  it  is  safer  for  him  to  use  lamp  black  and 
madder  lake,  for  the  iron  content  of  Vandyke  brown 
or  umber  have  a decomposing  effect  upon  the  madder. 


VENETIAN  RED 

This  is  a pure  bright  form  of  oxide  of  iron  which 
in  the  early  days  was  a native  hematite,  selected  by 
the  artist  for  brilliancy  of  color.  It  was  also  made  by 
the  early  Italian  painters  by  calcining  ochres  and 
siennas,  and  then  selecting  the  product  as  to  shade  and 
brilliancy.  Venetian  red  is  permanent,  dries  well,  and 
is  reliable,  but  has  a tendency  to  darken  when  exposed 
to  bright  light.  The  Venetian  red  of  commerce  is 


[ 167] 


Permanent  Painting 


a mixture  of  gypsum  and  oxide  of  iron  which  is  more 
permanent  to  light  than  the  pure  oxide  of  iron,  and 
neither  fades  nor  darkens,  but  should  not  be  mixed 
with  any  lake.  It  dries  well,  and  has  complete  hiding 
power.  It  is  frequently  used  as  a mixture  with  white 
as  a ground  color  for  portrait  painting,  but  should  al- 
ways be  permitted  to  dry  most  thoroughly  before  being 
painted  over,  for  the  reason  that  it  dries  so  hard  that 
it  may  crack  under  subsequent  painting. 


VERDIGRIS 

This  color  is  produced  by  subjecting  copper  to  the 
action  of  vinegar,  and  is  therefore  a form  of  acetate 
of  copper.  When  used  alone,  and  properly  protected, 
it  is  fairly  permanent  to  light,  but  has  a violet  chem- 
ical action  on  every  one  of  the  organic  pigments  and 
lakes,  and  affects  many  of  the  inorganic  pigments.  It 
is  popularly  supposed  that  the  ancients  used  it  as  a 
glazing  color,  but  this  is  very  doubtful,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  ancients  worked  more  with  malachite 
green  than  they  did  with  verdigris.  It  is  thoroughly 
unreliable,  and  should  not  be  used,  even  though  it 
may  not  fade.  It  is  affected  by  sulphur  gases  and  dries 
slowly. 

VERMILION,  PALE,  MEDIUM  AND  DARK 
(See  French  Vermilion) 


[168] 


Permanent  Painting 


VERONA  BROWN 

Verona  brown  is  a fancy  name  given  to  a mixture  of 
burnt  sienna  and  burnt  umber,  or  raw  sienna  and  burnt 
umber.  It  is  a permanent  color,  unaffected  by,  but 
has  a deleterious  action  on,  some  of  the  lakes.  As 
a glazing  color,  it  is  reliable,  and  is  to  be  recommended. 


VERONESE  GREEN 

It  is  supposed  that  Paul  Veronese  was  the  first 
painter  to  use  this  pigment,  and  if  he  did,  it  is  very 
likely  that  the  green  he  used  was  a mixture  of  raw 
sienna  and  permanent  blue  (lapis  lazuli).  There  is  a 
tradition  that  the  original  Veronese  green  was  terre 
verte  or  ground  green  earth,  but  green  earth  is  so 
exceedingly  weak  and  such  an  indistinct  green  that 
it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  former  combination  was 
the  original  green.  When  raw  sienna  and  permanent 
blue  are  mixed  they  form  a permanent  and  reliable 
pigment. 


VIOLET  CARMINE 

It  would  appear  that  this  pigment  is  made  from  the 
hypernic  wood  or  Brazil  wood,  and  as  such  is  thor- 
oughly unreliable  from  the  standpoint  of  permanence. 
Similar  shades  can  be  made  by  mixing  madder  with 
other  pigments  which  would  be  permanent,  and  there- 


1 169] 


Permanent  Painting 


fore  violet  carmine,  when  made  from  a wood  lake, 
has  no  place  on  the  painter’s  palette. 


VIRIDIAN 

This  is  a form  of  chrome  oxide  which  is  quite  trans- 
parent, and  while  not  very  brilliant  as  compared,  for 
instance,  with  emerald  green,  is  a thoroughly  safe  and 
reliable  color.  It  evidently  has  been  known  for  many 
years,  and  when  exposed  to  the  light  does  not  show 
any  perceptible  change,  nor  is  it  affected  by  any  gases 
in  the  atmosphere.  It  has  all  the  characteristics  of 
oxide  of  chromium,  and  has  the  same  chemical  com- 
position with  the  addition  of  water  as  a hydrate  or 
water  of  combination.  In  its  effect  it  is  similar  to  a 
lake,  and  can  be  used  for  glazing.  It  forms  a valuable 
pigment  for  the  painter,  and  is  thoroughly  reliable. 
It  dries  well. 

WARM  SEPIA 

This  is  generally  made  by  mixing  a sienna  or  ochre 
with  madder  lake.  As  a mixture  for  oil  painting,  this 
mixture  is  very  undesirable,  for  the  iron  in  the  ochre 
or  sienna  decomposes  the  madder,  and  as  a water  color 
the  same  result  is  obtained,  with  the  exception  that  it 
takes  much  longer  to  manifest  itself.  This  color  is 
not  to  be  recommended. 


[ 170] 


Permanent  Painting 


YELLOW  CARMINE 

This  pigment  is  a misnomer,  there  being  no  such 
thing  as  yellow  carmine.  The  pigment  sold  is  a yel- 
low lake  similar  to  Italian  pink  or  Dutch  pink,  fades 
very  rapidly,  is  quickly  decomposed,  and  has  no  merit 
whatever. 

YELLOW  LAKE 

All  yellow  lakes  which  the  author  has  examined 
are  in  the  same  class  with  Dutch  pink,  Italian  yellow, 
yellow  carmine,  etc.,  and  are  thoroughly  undesirable. 
The  author  has,  however,  made  a yellow  lake  from 
paranitraniline  which  is  intensely  powerful,  has  ten 
times  the  tinctorial  power  of  quercitron  lake  or  Dutch 
pink,  and  has  shown  itself  absolutely  permanent  when 
used  alone  for  over  one  year,  but  when  mixed  with 
the  metallic  pigments,  it  does  not  bleach  but  darkens. 
The  author  has  not  made  this  with  any  commercial 
purpose  in  view,  but  simply  as  a matter  of  experi- 
ment, for  the  purpose  of  producing  a permanent  yel- 
low glazing  color.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  reputa- 
ble tube  manufacturers  should  not  produce  a perfectly 
permanent  yellow  lake. 

YELLOW  OCHRE 

This  is  a native  clay  colored  with  about  20  per  cent, 
of  iron  rust  previously  described  under  the  head  of 


[ 171  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


Roman  ochre,  etc.,  very  permanent,  and  can  be  mixed 
with  other  mineral  pigments.  It  has  the  same  destruc- 
tive effect  upon  the  lake  colors  that  the  sienna  earths 
and  other  ochres  have.  When  exposed  to  the  bright 
light  for  a year,  it  has  a tendency  to  darken  very 
slightly.  It  is  a good  drier. 


ZINC  WHITE 

This  is  a pure  form  of  zinc  oxide,  permanent  under 
any  and  all  conditions,  but  having  the  defect  of  drying 
very  hard.  To  overcome  this  it  should  always  be  mixed 
with  pure  raw  unbleached  linseed  oil,  and  although  it 
is  a very  slow  drier  at  first,  its  drying  is  progressive, 
for  it  evidently  combines  with  the  linseed  oil.  It  has 
been  suggested  by  some  writers  that  zinc  oxide  should 
be  mixed  with  beeswax  or  castor  oil,  or  other  semi 
and  non-drying  compounds,  but  such  advice  should  by 
no  means  be  followed.  When  zinc  white  is  mixed  with 
a semi  or  non-drying  medium  and  exposed  to  bright 
sunlight  in  the  summer  time,  it  is  very  likely  to  sag 
and  run,  even  years  after  it  has  been  applied.  There 
is  a great  deal  of  discussion  concerning  the  trans- 
parency or  lack  of  opacity  of  zinc  white,  but  this  is 
largely  a fiction.  Any  painter,  who  uses  a color  in 
microscopic  quantities,  cannot  expect  it  to  hide  the 
pigment  over  which  it  is  placed.  Zinc  white  liberally 
applied,  one  one-hundredth  of  an  inch  thick,  for  in- 
stance, will  totally  obscure  black,  while  many  painters 


[172] 


Permanent  Painting 


apply  their  colors  to  the  depth  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 

Zinc  oxide  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  unaffected  by 
sulphur  gases.  This  is  not  strictly  true.  It  is  affected 
by  sulphur  gases  just  as  quickly  as  white  lead,  the 
difference  being  that  the  result  in  the  case  of  zinc 
oxide  is  not  visible,  because  the  sulphur  compounds 
of  zinc,  such  as  the  sulphide  with  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen, sulphite  of  zinc  with  sulphurous  acid,  and  sul- 
phate of  zinc  with  sulphuric  acid,  are  all  white  com- 
pounds, just  as  white  as  the  zinc  oxide  itself,  while 
lead  forms  a black  compound  with  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen. Hence,  we  assume  that  these  gases  do  not  affect 
zinc,  because  we  cannot  see  the  result,  but  chemically 
we  know  that  they  do.  Zinc  oxide  can  be  mixed  with 
any  color  and  may  be  freely  used. 


ZINNOBAR  GREEN,  LIGHT,  MEDIUM  AND  DARK 

Because  Zinnobar  red  or  Zinnober  was  a permanent 
red,  some  manufacturers  have  made  a Zinnobar  green, 
and  have  sold  it  more  or  less  on  the  implication  of  ex- 
cellence on  account  of  the  name. 

Zinnobar  green  of  commerce,  which  is  now  made 
by  only  a few  tube  manufacturers,  is  a mixture  of 
Prussian  blue  and  chrome  yellow,  sometimes  reduced 
with  whiting  and  sometimes  with  zinc.  In  any  case, 
this  color  should  not  be  used,  and  while  it  is  not  as 
fugitive  as  emerald  green,  and  not  as  quickly  affected 
as  a green  lake,  there  are  too  many  conditions  under 


[173] 


Permanent  Painting 


which  this  color  may  fail,  and  therefore  it  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  It  is  quite  natural  to  suppose  that  this 
color  has  all  the  defects  of  Prussian  blue  and  chrome 
yellow  both  as  to  decomposition  and  actinic  quality, 
yet  a sample  of  Zinnobar  green,  deep,  used  alone  and 
allowed  to  dry  before  being  varnished  over,  will  not 
show  any  decomposition  for  two  years,  but  as  there 
are  other  more  permanent  greens  for  the  painter  to 
use,  it  is  far  wiser  for  him  not  to  use  Zinnobar  green 
on  his  palette. 


[174] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  PERMANENT  COLORS 

The  following  is  a list  of  pigments  which  can 
be  mixed  with  each  other  or  used  separately, 
and  which  are  not  affected  by  light,  nor  do 
they  interact  upon  each  other ; 

Lamp  black 
Ivory  black 
Graphite 

Plumbago,  or  any  form  of  carbon  or  carbonaceous 
black 

Zinc  white,  or  any  form  of  oxide  of  zinc 
Permanent  white,  or  any  form  of  artificial  barium 
sulphate 

Venetian  red 
Indian  red 
Burnt  umber 
Raw  umber 
Raw  sienna 
Burnt  sienna 

and  the  various  mars  reds,  orange,  brown  and  purple. 
Oxide  of  chromium,  transparent 
Oxide  of  chromium,  viridian 
Terre  verte 


[175] 


Permanent  Painting 


The  vermilions  made  from  sulphide  of  mercury. 

Blue,  ultramarine  blues,  native  or  artificial 

Brown,  burnt  umber  and  all  oxide  of  iron  browns. 

Cadmium  yellow  to  orange. 

From  a chemical  standpoint  these  are  practically 
the  only  colors  which  may  be  mixed  with  each  other 
that  will  not  react,  and  I have  purposely  omitted  a 
number  of  so-called  permanent  colors  in  this  schedule, 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  madder  colors,  which  I find 
will  decompose  when  mixed  with  ochres,  as  well  as  if  a 
faint  trace  of  acid  is  left  in  the  oil.  I have  omitted 
the  madder  lakes,  for  although  they  are  permanent, 
they  cannot  be  indiscriminately  mixed  with  other  pig- 
ments. 


[176] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PIGMENTS  DANGEROUS  TO  HEALTH 

Nearly  all  of  the  pigments  are  poisonous,  and 
as  some  artistic  painters  from  time  immemorial 
have  been  accustomed  to  use  the  fingers  in 
shading  and  in  grading  tints,  particularly  in  portrait 
work,  it  is  essential  to  know  which  of  the  colors  are 
poisonous  and  which  are  not,  as  pigments  may  easily 
be  absorbed  through  the  skin  as  well  as  by  taking  them 
internally.  In  medical  practice,  for  instance,  a solu- 
tion of  iodine  is  painted  on  the  skin  and  is  ab- 
sorbed in  that  way  into  the  system.  So  likewise  it 
is  possible  to  absorb  colors  through  the  skin,  particu- 
larly under  the  finger  nails.  The  unbroken  skin  is 
supposed  to  be  impervious,  yet  lead  poisoning  may 
result  through  the  actual  manipulation  of  lead  pig- 
ments, and  it  behooves  the  painter  to  be  very  careful 
in  the  use  of  his  or  her  fingers  in  the  manipulation  of 
certain  pigments. 

The  worst  results  are  produced  by  the  use  of  lead 
pigments,  for  it  appears  that  the  arsenic  and  copper 
pigments  which  are  more  poisonous  if  taken  inter- 
nally are  not  so  easily  absorbed  through  the  skin. 
First  in  the  list  of  dangerous  pigments  is  flake  white. 


[177] 


Permanent  Painting 


which  is  easily  absorbed  and  produces  lead  poisoning. 
Many  painters  have  the  habit  of  blending  colors  on 
the  palms  of  their  hands  either  with  a brush  or  with 
a finger,  and  due  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  the 
colors  as  soon  as  the  desired  effect  is  produced  on 
the  canvas.  The  pigments  which  are  absorbed  into 
the  skin  are  flake  white,  chrome  yellow,  chrome  green, 
Naples  yellow,  red  lead  and  orange  mineral.  These 
are  the  lead  colors  principally  used.  The  arsenic  col- 
ors are  Paris  green,  emerald  green  and  orpiment. 
There  are  a number  of  other  poisonous  colors  such 
as  mercury  vermilion,  verdigris,  etc.,  which  are,  how- 
ever, not  frequently  used  by  the  painter.  Prussian  blue 
which  is  a cyanide  blue  is  supposed  to  be  a poisonous 
color,  but  in  reality  it  is  not.  Zinc  white,  permanent 
white,  baryta  white  and  ultramarine  are  non- 
poisonous.  All  the  blacks,  siennas,  umbers,  ochres,  car- 
mine, red  oxides  and  many  of  the  lakes  are  non- 
poisonous,  but  the  best  rule  to  follow  is  to  clean  the 
hands  with  soap  and  water  after  having  stained  them 
with  colors. 


[178] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XVII 

PIGMENTS  WHICH  ARE  AFFECTED  BY 
SULPHUR  GASES  AND  COAL  SMOKE 
ALSO  THE  PIGMENTS  WHICH  ARE 
AFFECTED  BY  LIGHT 


IT  has  been  demonstrated  by  numerous  writers,  and 
particularly  by  Prof.  Chas.  Baskerville  * that  in  all 
large  communities  there  exists  sulphuric  acid  in  the 


* Baskerville  made  a number  of  determinations  of  the  sulphur  dioxide 
content  of  the  air  of  New  York  City.  Stations  were  established 
throughout  greater  New  York,  including  the  high  office  buildings,  parks, 
subways,  and  railroad  tunnels.  Very  variable  results,  as  might  be 
expected,  were  obtained. 

The  determinations  may,  in  part,  be  thus  summarized: 


Locality  SO2  in  parts  per  million 

Elevated  portion  of  the  city  near  a high  stack 3.14 

Various  parks  0.84  (maximum,  others  negative) 

Railroad  tunnels  8. 64 — 31.50 

Subway  None 

Downtown  region  1.05 — 5.60 

Localities  near  a railroad  1.12 — 8.40 


A total  quantity  of  1300  tons  of  sulphur  dioxide,  calculated  as  80 
per  cent,  sulphuric  acid,  is  discharged  every  twenty-four  hours  into 
the  air  of  New  York  City  from  the  combustion  of  coal  alone. 

From  an  economic  standpoint,  this  is  an  enormous,  partly  avoidable, 
waste,  while  from  a sanitary  standpoint,  any  disinfecting  action  it 
exerts  on  the  organic  wastes  arising  from  the  streets  is  greatly  counter- 
balanced by  its  general  injurious  effects.! 


t Paper  read  before  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  Feb.,  1909. 
These  may  be  thus  summarized: 


[ 179] 


Permanent  Painting 


1.  Its  presence  in  atmospheric  air  is  a menace  to  hygienic  welfare, 
since  it  has  serious  effects  on  susceptible  persons  and  particularly 
exerts  deleterious  effects  upon  the  respiratory  organs.  SO2  in  the  air 
of  manufactories  tends  to  produce  bronchitis  and  anaemia. 

2.  It  exerts  an  injurious  action  on  plant  life.  In  this  action,  it 
is  less  violent  than  hydrogen  cliloride,  sulphuric  acid,  and  fluorine; 
but  owing  to  its  less  solubility  and  consequent  slower  condensation  it 
has  a wider  distribution.  In  Manchester,  England,  in  1891,  it  was 
learned  that  the  greatest  injury  to  plant  life  is  due  to  the  emana- 
tions from  dwelling  houses. 

3.  The  condensation  of  sulphurous  acid  with  moisture  in  fogs  and 
hoar  frosts  seriously  affects  goods  printed  with  colors  sensitive  to 
sulphurous  acid;  for  example,  logwood,  Brazil  wood  shades,  and 
aniline  black. 

4.  Sulphur  dioxide  proceeding  from  the  combustion  of  coal  and 
coal-gas,  the  quantity  of  which  in  towns  is  considerable,  necessarily 
destroys  the  ozone  of  the  air.  This  may  account  for  the  definite 
variations  of  the  proportion  of  ozone  observed  at  various  localities. 

5.  In  anti -cyclonic  periods  the  amount  of  sulphur  dioxide  rises  con- 
siderably and  at  such  times  this  increase  is  accompanied  by  at  least 
as  large  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  organic  impurities.  (Baskerville.) 

Where  there  is  much  soft  coal  consumed  in  a certain  district,  the 
brick  and  stone  become  coated  with  particles  of  carbon.  This  deposit 
causes  marble  and  other  light-colored  materials  to  take  a funeral  as- 
pect and  not  only  that,  it  causes  some  stone  to  decay.  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  in  London  is  a notable  example  of  this  as  shown  by  Church. 
In  other  cases  the  sulphur  gases  attack  the  mortar  or  cement.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  sulphur  dioxide  accumulates  on  the  soot  and  other 
solids,  where  it  is  oxidized  to  sulphurie  acid. 

In  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  used  for  purifying  crude  oil 
and  for  other  purposes,  the  escape  of  sulphurous  acid  fumes  from  the 
Exits  often  constitutes  a decided  nuisance.  Not  only  is  vegetation 
injured  and  often  killed  in  nearby  sections,  but  the  health  of  the 
residents  in  the  neighborhood  is  injuriously  affected  by  breathing  the 
poisonous  vapors,  throat  troubles  of  a chronic  nature  often  resulting. 
However,  injuries  are  often  attributed  to  sulphuric  acid  factories, 
when  in  fact  they  are  innocent.  Compliance  with  the  requirements 
of  the  English  Alkali  Act  of  Lord  Derby,  effectually  prevents  any 
serious  injury.  Temporary  discomfort  and  even  serious  injury  may 
result,  however,  through  an  accident  in  the  works.  Manufacturers 
wish  tu  avoid  and  also  prevent  the  escape  of  sulphur  dioxide,  for  all 
that  is  lost  diminishes  profits.  Corrective  devices  are  applied  by  the 
works’  owners. 


[ 180] 


Permanent  Painting 


air,  and  many  of  the  colors  which  we  have  regarded 
as  permanent  to  light,  are  not  permanent  to  the  ef- 
fects of  acid  gases.  In  a general  way  this  rule  ap- 
plies also  to  the  colors  affected  by  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen. If  we  take,  for  instance,  red  lead,  which  is  the 
red  oxide  of  lead,  and  expose  it  to  the  air  of  a city,  it 
apparently  bleaches  white.  The  same  red  lead  when 
varnished  and  covered  with  glass  may  be  exposed  for 
ages,  and  will  not  be  affected.  We  note  the  former 
change  particularly  on  steel  structures  like  bridges 
which  have  been  painted  with  red  lead  and  on  which 
the  color  sometimes  bleaches  from  a pure  scarlet  to 
a pale  pink.  On  rubbing  such  a surface  with  linseed 
oil  and  turpentine  the  original  color  comes  back  in  all 
its  brilliancy.  Upon  investigation,  we  find  that  the 
sulphuric  acid  has  affected  the  color  and  formed  a 
minute  crystalline  surface  of  sulphate  of  lead,  which 
is  white.  Chrome  yellow  will  be  affected  in  the  same 
way.  Improperly  washed  prussian  blue  will  likewise 
bleach,  and  flake  white  is  affected  m identically  the 
same  manner,  with  the  exception,  that  the  change 
cannot  be  noted  by  the  eye,  but  if  a flake  white  surface 
which  has  been  exposed  to  the  elements  is  rubbed  with 
a black  cloth,  a white  chalky  deposit  will  stain  the 
cloth.  This  is  known  as  chalking,  and  mural  decora- 
tions which  cannot  very  well  be  varnished  and  pro- 
tected, should  therefore  be  executed  with  pigments 
that  are  not  affected  by  the  acid  gases  of  sulphur.  Near- 
ly all  the  pigments  are  affected,  with  the  exception  of 


1 181] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  blacks.  The  ochres,  siennas  and  the  earth  colors 
which  are  exceedingly  permanent  show  this  defect 
to  a less  degree,  although,  as  compared  with  the  chem- 
ical colors  like  prussian  blue,  the  lakes,  cadmium  yel- 
low and  the  lead  colors,  but  paintings  which  are  kept 
in  a pure  atmosphere  under  glass  are  necessarily  pre- 
served, and  water  colors  are  more  susceptible  than 
any  other  form  of  painting. 

These  acid  gases  are  produced  during  the  burning  of 
coal,  and  as  the  combustion  of  coal  is  more  or  less 
incomplete,  soot  may  deposit  upon  the  surface  of  a 
painting,  particularly  decorations  in  a locality  where 
soft  coal  is  used.  This  is  particularly  true  of  locali- 
ties like  Sheffield,  England ; Pittsburgh,  U.  S.  A.,  and 
Chicago,  U.  S.  A.  There  are,  however,  many  paint- 
ings such  as,  for  instance,  the  Horse  Fair  by  Rosa 
Bonheur,  which  cannot  be  covered  by  means  of  glass, 
and  paintings  of  such  magnitude  should  be  kept  care- 
fully varnished  to  prevent  any  disintegration  from  the 
acid  gases.  The  canvas  upon  which  most  of  these  large 
paintings  are  executed  is  either  composed  of  flax 
which  is  equal  to  linen,  or  cotton  fibre,  or  a mixture 
of  both,  and  these  fabrics  are  particularly  susceptible 
to  the  action  of  acid  gases.  The  chemical  method  of 
determining  the  difference  between  cotton  and  wool 
consists  in  dissolving  out  the  wool  with  caustic  pot- 
ash, which  leaves  the  cotton  intact,  and  vice  versa,  we 
may  take  an  acid  re-agent  which  will  not  attack  the 
wool  but  will  dissolve  the  cotton.  In  time,  therefore, 


[ 182] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  canvas  would  be  weakened,  and  its  strength  re- 
duced through  the  action  of  these  moist  acid  gases, 
which  demonstrates  the  advisability  of  either  painting 
the  back  of  a canvas,  or  mounting  it  upon  a wood 
or  metal  support.  In  the  case  of  a very  large  paint- 
ing a sheet  of  metal  could  not  be  fabricated  which 
would  be  sufficiently  light  and  rigid  for  this  purpose, 
but  a seasoned  wood  support  could  be  constructed. 
However  under  all  circumstances  the  back  of  the  can- 
vas should  be  painted  to  prevent  this  disintegration. 

In  case  a canvas  is  very  thin,  and  there  is  danger 
of  the  protecting  coat  on  the  back  soaking  through,  it 
is  advisable  to  put  on  a thin  glue  size  before  applying 
the  protective  coat. 

In  this  list  must  be  included  all  colors  which  contain 
metallic  bases,  such  as  lead,  copper  and  antimony. 
The  colors  which  are  affected  are  as  follows : 


Flake  White 
Silver  White 
Cremnitz  White 
Lemon  Yellow  made  oi 
chrome  yellow 
Chrome  Yellow 


Naples  Yellow 
Chrome  Green 
Paris  Green 
Emerald  Green 
Verdigris 
Zinnober  Green 


[ 183] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
WATER  IN  TUBE  COLORS 

UNDER  normal  conditions,  if  you  take  heavy 
pigments  like  white  lead,  oxide  of  iron,  etc., 
and  grind  them  in  linseed  or  poppy  oil,  the 
oil  will  eventually  float  to  the  top  and  the  pigment 
will  settle  hard  to  the  bottom,  yet  nearly  all  the  tube 
colors  remain  soft  and  fresh,  and  apparently  the  law 
of  gravity  is  overcome  in  some  way. 

A large  number  of  the  colors  are  kept  in  suspension 
because  the  manufacturer  adds  water  to  the  oil,  and 
makes  an  emulsion  which  keeps  the  pigment  suspend- 
ed. This  is  particularly  true  of  the  whites,  and  it  must 
be  admitted  that  a small  percentage  of  water  added 
to  the  pigment  or  the  oil  during  the  process  of  man- 
facture  does  not  do  any  ultimate  harm,  yet,  some  tube 
manufacturers  use  such  an  excessive  quantity  of  water 
that  where  paint  is  very  smoothly  applied  the  water 
evaporates  quite  rapidly  and  leaves  the  subsequent 
film  in  a spongy,  porous  condition.  If  a picture  were 
to  be  put  away  in  a perfectly  clean  atmosphere  free 
from  dust  no  harm  would  result,  or  if  the  precaution 
were  taken  to  place  a sheet  of  glass  over  the  picture 
and  slightly  away  from  it,  the  picture  would  dry  in 


[ 184] 


High  power  photo-micrograph  of  Flake  While  which 
contains  too  much  water  in  its  composition.  The  uneven 
surface  presents  an  excellent  lodging  place  for  dust  and 
dirt  which  are  hard  to  remove. 


Periiianent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
WATER  IN  TUBE  COLORS 

NDER  normal  conditions,^!  you  take  heavy 
pigments  like  white  lead,  oxide  of  iron,  etc., 
and  grind  them  in  linseed  or  poppy  oil,  the 
oil  will  eventually  float  to  the  top  and  the  pigment 
will  settle  hard  to  the  bottom,  :yet  nearly  all  the  tube 
colors  remain  soft  and  fresh,  and  apparently  the  law 
of  gravity  is  overcome  in  some  way. 

A large  number  of  the  colors  are  kept  in  suspension 
because  the  manufacturer  adds  water  to  the  oil,  and 
makes  an  emulsion  which  keeps  the  pigment  suspend- 
ed. This  is  particularly  true  of  the  whites,  and  it  must 
be  admitted  that  a small  percentage  of  water  added 
to  the  pigment  or  the  oil  during  the  process  of  man- 
facture  does  not  do  any  ultimate  harm,  yet,  some  tube 
manufacturers  use  such  an  excessive  quantity  of  water 
that  where  paint  is  very  smoothly  applied  the  water 
e vapnrjtrq  gnitp  rapidly  and  leaves  the 
porous  condition. 


if,  the  precai 

were  t<fken'  to  place  a 

and  slightly  away  from  it.  tlic  picture  would  dry  in 


Permanent  Painting 


a perfectly  clean  condition,  and  would  remain  so  until 
it  were  varnished;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  so  that  if 
we  examine  microscopically  a paint  film  which  con- 
tains excessive  water,  we  find  that  the  spongy,  porous 
condition  of  the  surface  is  a lodging  place  for  dust 
and  dirt  which  cannot  be  readily  removed  for  obvious 
physical  reasons,  and  as  it  seems  advisable  to  add 
water  to  nearly  all  of  the  tube  colors  which  will  settle 
out  rapidly  and  heavily,  it  is  well  to  acquaint  the 
painter  with  this  fact  in  order  that  the  picture  be  not 
subjected  to  a dry  atmosphere  which  is  dusty. 


[185] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  PIGMENTS  WHICH  ARE  ABSOLUTELY 
PERMANENT  WHEN  USED  ALONE  BUT 
ARE  NOT  PERMANENT  WHEN 
MIXED  WITH  OTHER  COLORS 


Madder  Lake 
Antwerp  Blue 
Prussian  Blue 
Paris  Blue 

Vermilion  made  of  sul- 
phide of  mercury 
Para  Red 
Lithol  Red 


Harrison  Red 
Ultramarine  Blue 
Cobalt  Blue 

Hooker’s  Green  (when 
made  from  Prussian 
blue  and  raw  sienna) 
Ochre 

Flake  White 


The  foregoing  list  of  colors  must  be  used  with  some 
judgment.  Many  of  these  colors  are  permanent  when 
mixed  with  some  other  colors,  but  decompose  when 
mixed  with  each  other.  Eor  instance,  yellow  ochre 
and  madder  lake  when  used  alone  are  permanent,  yet 
the  two  when  mixed  will  decompose. 


[ 186] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XX 

COLORS  WHICH  DRY  SLOWLY 
AND  IRREGULARLY 

( FROM  1 DAYS  TO  2 WEEKSi 


Bone  Brown 
Alizarin  Yellow 
Crimson  Madder 
Carmine  Lake 
Crimson  Lake 
Brown  Madder 
French  Carmine 
French  Carmine  No.  2 
Orange  Cadmium 
Gamboge 
Capucine  Madder 
Mauve 
Magenta 
Indian  Yellow 
Brown  Pink 
American  Vermilion 
Madder 
Alumina 

Cork 

and  as  a rule  all 


Rose  Pink 
Transparent  Black 
Sepia 

Scarlet  Lake 
Rose  Doree 
Alizarin  Green 
Yellow  Lake 
Payne’s  Gray 
Italian  Pink 
Indigo 
Lamp  Black 
Carbon  Black 
Olive  Lake 
Alumina  & Prussian 
Blue 

Sap  Green 
Violet  Carmine 
Vandyke  Brown 
Black 

of  the  Lake  colors 


[187] 


Permanent  Painting 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  FAILURE  OF  SIR  JOSHUA 
REYNOLD’S  PAINTINGS 

ONE  of  the  greatest  portrait  painters  who  ever 
lived  and  the  man  who  made  the  most  fail- 
ures of  his  art,  was  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  the 
obvious  reason  being  that  he  was  always  after  the 
search  of  the  secret  of  the  ancient  masters,  and  as 
far  as  we  can  deduce,  he  never  made  a single  inves- 
tigation and  hardly  ever  painted  two  pictures  alike 
from  the  technical  standpoint.  During  three  years 
of  his  career,  he  painted  on  an  average  one  portrait 
every  three  days.  He  was  just  as  careless  at  times 
in  his  imitative  style  as  he  was  in  the  selection  of  his 
pigments,  for  many  of  his  clients  refused  to  accept 
the  pictures  after  he  had  finished  them,  because 
they  did  not  resemble  the  sitter.  It  was  his  custom 
to  paint  simply  the  face  and  the  hands,  and  per- 
mitted his  students  to  fill  in  the  dresses  and  the 
background.  In  nearly  every  one  of  his  pictures 
that  has  faded  and  decomposed  only  the  face  and 
hands  are  affected,  the  rest  of  the  picture  being  in 
perfect  condition. 

He  kept  a diary  which  was  written  in  a jargon  of 


[188] 


Permanent  Painting 


Italian,  Latin,  English  and  French,  and  every  time 
he  made  a note,  it  appears  as  if  he  was  sure  that  he 
had  made  a new  discovery,  and  had  at  last  found 
what  he  always  thought  was  the  Venetian  secret. 

The  principal  cause  of  his  failure  was  the  fact  that 
all  lakes  were  probably  the  same  to  him,  and  he  us- 
ually mixed  a lake  with  ochre,  which  is,  of  course,  a 
radical  mistake.  During  his  life  time  many  of  his 
pictures  had  faded  until  the  faces  assumed  the  ghastly 
tint  which  in  medicine  is  known  to  be  due  to  chronic 
anaemia  where  the  skin  blanches  and  assumes  a yel- 
lowish gray,  and  the  line  of  demarcation  around  the 
lips  is  obliterated.  This  effect  in  his  pictures  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  lake  which  he  used  was  not  always 
madder  lake,  but  weaker  lakes  produced  from  berries 
and  wood,  although  even  madder  lake  is  incompatible 
with  yellow  ochre  and  with  the  siennas  and  umbers, 
so  that  none  of  the  effects  which  he  produced  were 
permanent. 

How  strange  is  the  comparison  between  the  work 
of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  that  of  Franz  Hals  and 
his  contemporaries.  Hals  used  practically  the  same  col- 
ors but  always  glazed  with  madder  lake  after  the  un- 
dercoat was  thoroughly  dry.  Painters,  as  a rule, 
know  that  no  earth  color  or  metallic  color  should  be 
mixed  with  a lake,  but  yet  a lake  may  be  used  over 
every  one  of  the  earth  colors,  including  even  ochre, 
provided  the  ochre  has  been  allowed  to  become  thor- 
oughly dry.  The  one  possible  exception  to  this  may  be 


[189] 


Permanent  Painting 


the  use  of  madder  lake  mixed  with  English  or  Chinese 
vermilion,  because  vermilion  is  a very  stable  chemical 
compound  and  the  madder  lake  is  therefore  not  de- 
composed, with  the  possible  exception  that  in  time 
a mixture  of  madder  lake  and  English  vermilion  will 
darken  slightly  when  exposed  to  direct  sunlight. 

If  painters  will  limit  the  colors  used  on  their  pa- 
lettes to  the  least  possible  number  and  use  only  those 
which  do  not  interact,  as  well  as  exercise  a little 
judgment  in  glazing  over  colors  only  after  they  are 
thoroughly  dry,  absolutely  permanent  results  will  be 
obtained,  and  the  mistakes  made  by  the  older  men  will 
not  be  without  profit. 


[190] 


Permanent  Painting 


INDEX 

Abrasion  in  Cleaning  Pictures  58 

Abrasion  of  Surface,  When  Necessary  59 

Absorption  of  Pigments  through  the  Skin  177 

Academy  Board  55 

Acid  Gases,  Action  on  Paint,  of 181 

Acid  in  Oils  102 

Acetate  of  Copper  168 

Acetone  57 

Aging  of  Linseed  Oil  78 

Albumen  as  Paint  Medium  9 

Alcohol  in  Spirit  Varnish  72 

Alizarin  Colors  85 

Alizarin  Green  87 

Alizarin  Yellow  87 

Alligator  Cracks,  Cause  of  89 

Alligatoring  46 

Almond  Oil  ii 

Alumina  Hydrate  88 

Alumina  White  88 

Aluminum  49 

Amber  Black  0 

Amber  Varnish  73 

Amyl  Acetate  as  Solvent  57 

Amyl  Alcohol  as  Solvent  57 

“Anatomy  Lesson,”  of  Rembrandt  86 

Ancient  Painters;  Media  Used  by 10 

Ancient  Pigments  22 

Aniline  Yellow  87 

Antwerp  Blue  88,  107 

Antwerp  Blue,  Effect  of  Light  and  Air  on 152 

Arsenic  Colors  178 

Artificial  Cobalt  Blue  iii 


[ 191] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Artificial  Cobalt  Blue,  as  Cerulean  Blue io6 

Artificial  Cobalt  Blue,  in  “Davey’s  Gray”  ii8 

Artificial  Ultramarine  Blue  163 

Artificial  Ultramarine  Blue,  Composition  of  165 

Artificial  Ultramarine  Blue,  Effect  of  Acids  on 121 

Artificial  Ultramarine  Blue,  Action  with  Other  Pigments.  .112 

Artificial  Ultramarine  Blue  with  Prussian  Blue  137 

Asphaltum  89 

Asphaltum,  Effect  of  Light  on 36 

Asphaltum  as  Bone  Pitch  94 

Asphaltum  Glaze  32 

Asphaltum  from  Mummies  144 

Asphaltum-glazed  Paintings  62 

Aurelian  90 

Aurora  Yellow  (Cadmium  Yellow)  loi 

Barium  Sulphate  37 

Baryta  White  178 

Baskerville,  Prof.;  Analysis  of  the  Air  in  Cities 179 

Benzene,  (See  Benzol) 

Benzine  69 

Benzine  as  a Solvent  57 

Benzine  for  Cleaning  Pictures 58 

Benzol  69 

Benzol  as  a Solvent  57 

Benzol  as  a Paint  Remover  58 

Bistre  91 

Bitumen  89 

Bitumen,  Effect  of  Light  on 36 

Bitumen,  Harmful  Effects  of 46 

Bitumen  from  Mummies  144 

Bitumen  in  Vandyke  Brown  167 

Bitumen  Glaze,  a Cause  of  Cracking  of  Paintings 41 

Blacks  Used  by  the  Ancients  24 

Black  Pigments,  Indirect  Cause  of  Cracking  44 

Black  Pigments,  Nonpoisonous  178 

Black  Pigments,  Their  Permanency  182 

Black  Pigments,  Use  in  Boiled  Oil 79 

Black,  Ivory  134 

Black  Lead  91 

Blanc  Fixe  115 

Bleached  Linseed  Oil  76 

Bleached  Oils  77 


[192] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Bleaching  of  Colors  i8i 

Bleaching  of  Lake  Pigments  189 

Bleaching  of  Madder  Lake  86 

“Bloom”  on  Pictures  62 

Blue  Pigments  of  the  Ancients  26 

Blue  Black  92 

Blue,  Cerulean  106 

Blue,  Leitch’s  136 

Blue  Verditer  93 

Boiled  Linseed  Oil  78 

Bone  Brown  94 

Bone  Pitch  94 

Brazil  Wood  30 

Brilliant  Yellow  134 

Bronze  Blue  107,  152 

Bronze  Green  95 

Brown,  Caledonian  103 

Brown,  Cappah  103 

Brown  Pigments  of  the  Ancients  26 

Brown  Lake  96 

Brown  Madder  95 

Brown  Ochre  96 

Brown  Pink  97 

Brown,  Prussian  153 

Brown  Roman  Ochre  99 

Brown  Umber  103 

Burnt  Carmine  98 

Burnt  Sienna  99 

Burnt  Umber  100 

Burnt  Umber  in  Glaze  to  Imitate  Asphaltum  90 

Burnt  Umber,  Action  wdth  Madder  Lake  86 

Burnt  Umber,  Possible  Effect  of  its  Rapid  Drying 46 

Cadmium  Yellow  loi 

Cadmium  Yellow,  its  Use  in  Bronze  Green 95 

Cadmium  Yellow,  its  Use  in  Golden  Ochre 127 

Cadmium  Yellow,  Effect  on  Madder  Lake 87 

Cadmium  Yellow  as  Orient  Madder  148 

Calcium  Carbonate  Used  in  the  Gesso  Paintings 26 

Calcined  Ochre  Used  by  the  Ancients  23 

Calcined  Sienna  (See  Burnt  Sienna) 

Caledonian  Brown  103 

Canvas,  Action  of  Acid  Gases  on 182 


[193] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Canvas  as  a Foundation  48 

Canvas,  Deterioration  of 182 

Canvas  for  Oil  Painting,  Preparation  of S3 

Canvas  in  Commercial  Practice  53 

Canvas  Mounting  57 

Canvas,  Preparation  of  for  Painting  51 

Canvas,  Priming  or  Ground  Coat  Paint  for 50,  51 

Cappah  Brown  103 

Caput  Mortuum  (Mars  Violet)  141 

Carbon  Black  104 

Carbon  Black  in  Burnt  Carmine  98 

Carbon  Black  in  Sepia  Substitute  159 

Carbonate  of  Copper  139 

Carbon  Tetrachloride  as  Paint  Remover  58 

Carmine  104 

Carmine,  Burnt  98 

Carmine,  Madder  138 

Carmine  Used  in  Indian  Purple  130 

Carmine  Lake  105 

Carnation  Lake  105 

Casein  Used  as  Medium  ro 

Cassel  Brown  (Vandyke  Brown)  166 

Cassel  Brown  Used  by  the  Ancients  26 

Cassel  Earth  106 

Castile  Soap  for  Cleaning  Pictures  59 

Cause  of  Cracks  in  Paintings  40 

Causes  Affecting  the  Permanency  of  Paint  Films 41 

Cennini,  Cennino,  on  Oil  and  Varnish  20 

Cerulean  Blue  106 

Cerusite,  Known  to  the  Ancients  22 

Chalking  i8i 

Charcoal  in  Blue  Black  92 

Charcoal  (Vine  Black)  93 

Charcoal  Gray  106 

Charred  Bones,  Used  as  Black  Pigment  by  the  Ancients..  26 

Chemistry  of  Light  68 

Chinese  Blue  107 

Chinese  Blue  in  Antwerp  Blue  88 

Chinese  Blue  (Prussian  Blue)  152 

China  Clay  164 

Chinese  Vermilion  108 

Chinese  White  108 


[ 194] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Chlorophyll  (Sap  Green)  157 

Chlorophyll  in  Oil  35 

Chlorophyll,  Bleaching  and  Recovery  of  Color  158 

Chromate  of  Barium  (Lemon  Yellow)  137 

Chromate  of  Barium  in  Permanent  Yellow  150 

Chromate  of  Lead  109 

Chromate  of  Strontium  (Lemon  Yellow)  137 

Chromate  of  Zinc  (Primrose  Yellow)  151 

Chromate  of  Zinc  (as  Citron  Yellow)  no 

Chromate  of  Zinc  in  Cobalt  Green  113 

Chromate  of  Zinc  in  Permanent  Yellow  150 

Chrome  Green  •. 109 

Chrome  Green,  Absorption  by  Skin  178 

Chrome  Green,  Effect  on  Madder  Lake  86 

Chrome  Orange  109 

Chrome  Oxide  (Veridian)  170 

Chrome  Oxide  (Veronese  Green)  123 

Chrome  Red  109 

Chrome  Vermilion,  Renovation  of  Paintings  where  Used.  59 

Chrome  Yellow  109 

Chrome  Yellow,  Absorption  by  Skin  178 

Chrome  Yellow,  Effect  of  Acid  Gases  on 181 

Chrome  Yellow,  In  Chrome  Green  109 

Chrome  Yellow,  Tinting  Material  in  Golden  Ochre  127 

Chrome  Yellow,  Used  in  Zinnobar  Green  173 

Cinnibar,  Used  by  the  Ancients  25 

Cinnibar  Green  no 

Citron  Yellow  no 

Classification  of  Pigments  81 

Clay,  Base  for  Davey’s  Gray  118 

Clay,  Basis  of  Brown  Ochre  96 

Clay,  Occurrence  in  Black  Lead  92 

Clay,  As  Terre  Verte  and  Terre  Rose  161 

Cleaning  of  Pictures  56 

Climatic  Influences  Affecting  Paintings  45 

Coach  Makers’  Japan  49 

Coach  Makers’  Japan,  Utility  in  Preparing  Surfaces  for 

Painting  51 

Coach  Painting,  Application  of  Principles  of,— to  Prepara- 
tion of  Surfaces  48 

Coating  to  Protect  Wooden  Panels  43 

Cobalt  Blue  m 


[195] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Cobalt  Blue,  as  Component  of  Leitch’s  Blue  137 

Cobalt  Blue,  as  Component  of  Permanent  Violet  149 

Cobalt  Green  113 

Cobalt  Violet  113 

Cobalt  Yellow  (Aurelian)  go 

Cochineal  Bug,  Color  from  the 104 

Cochineal  Lake  117 

Coefficient  of  Expansion,  Consideration  of 45 

Cologne  Earth  114 

Color  Photography;  Application  of  Theory  65 

Colors  Affected  by  Coal  Smoke  and  Sulphur  Gases 179 

Colors  Used  by  the  Ancient  Painters  25 

Complimentary  Color  Sensations  67 

Composition  of  Ultramarine  165 

Compression  and  Tension  in  Paintings 42 

Constant  White  114 

Copal  Resins,  Color  Changes  of 36 

Copal  Varnish  71 

Copal  Megilp  74,  115 

Copper  as  Foundation  of  Paintings  48 

Copperas,  Crude  Material  Used  in  Manufacture  of  Indian 

Red  131 

Copper  Carbonate  Used  by  Ancient  Painters  23 

Cork  Black  116 

Cotton  (Canvas)  Foundations,  Deterioration  of 182 

Cracking  Due  to  Climatic  Conditions  43 

Cracking  Due  to  “Compression  and  Tension” 42 

Cracks  Due  to  Alcohol  Varnishes 44 

Cracks  Due  to  Selective  Drying  44 

Cracks  Due  to  Unequal  Drying  Rates  of  Colors 46 

Cracks  Due  to  Varnishing  an  Undried  Picture  44 

Cracking  of  Paintings  40 

Cremnitz  White  116 

Crimson  Lake  117 

Crimson  Madder  117 

Crocus  Martis  141 

Currents  of  Air,  Acceleration  of  Drying  by 75 

Cuttlefish  Juice  (Sepia)  159 

Damar  Varnish  yi,  72 

Damar  Varnish  versus  Mastic  for  Coating  Pictures 73 

Darkened  Pictures,  their  Renovation  59 

Davey’s  Gray  118 


[196] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Deep  Madder  ii8 

Description  of  Pigments  8i 

Deterioration,  Photo-Chemical,  of  Oil  Paintings  32 

Dried  Oil  Films,  Action  of  Solvents  on  58 

Driers  74 

Drying  of  Linseed  Oil  7g 

Drying  Oils,  When  First  Used  10 

Drying  Oils  76 

Drying  of  Linseed  Oil,  The  80 

Dutch  Pink  (Brown  Pink)  97 

Dutch  Pink,  its  Use  in  Orange  Madder 147 

Dutch  Process  White  Lead  120 

Earth,  Cassel  106 

Earth,  Cologne  114 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles,  On  Early  Use  of  Oil  in  Painting...  ii 

Effect  of  Dry  Atmosphere  on  Paintings  40 

Eggs  Used  as  Vehicle  by  Ancient  Painters  19 

Egyptians,  Pigments  Used  by  the  25 

Emerald  Green  118 

Emeraud  Green 

Emerald  Green,  Absorption  by  the  Skin  178 

Emery  Cloth  for  Use  in  Surfacing  49 

English  Vermilion  in  Paintings;  Renovation  of 59 

Eosine  Colors  (Geranium  Lake)  126 

Eraser  for  Cleaning  Pictures  60 

Ethyl  Alcohol  as  a Paint  Solvent  57 

Expansion  of  Paint  Eilms,  Unequal  50 

Extract  of  Gall  125 

Extract  of  Vermilion  119 

Facius  on  First  Use  of  Oil  in  Painting  ir 

“Fatty  Linseed  Oil”  7^ 

Ferric  Ferrocyanide  Blue  107 

Field’s  Orange  Vermilion  120 

Filter  for  Canvas  42 

Flake  White  120 

Flake  White,  Action  of  Acid  Gases,  etc.,  on 181 

Flake  White,  Renovation  of  Darkened  Pigment 59 

Flake  White,  Toxic  Qualities  of 177 

Flesh  Tints,  Composition  of,— Used  by  Franz  Hals 85 

Flexible  Canvas  Foundation  51 

Flexible  Varnish  72 

Foundation  White  124 


[ 197] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

French  Blue  121 

French  Ochre  127 

French  Ultramarine  122 

French  Varnish  72 

French  Vermilion  122 

French  Veronese  Green  122 

Fusel  Oil  as  a Solvent  57 

Gall  Stone  125 

Gamboge  125 

Geranium  Lake  126 

Geranium  Madder  126 

Gasoline  Used  for  Cleaning  59 

Gasoline  as  a Solvent  69 

Gesso  9 

Glazing  with  Burnt  Sienna  100 

Glue  Sizing  on  Canvas  51,  53 

Gmelin,  Process  of  Making  Artif.  Ultramarine  Blue  164 

Golden  Ochre  ; 127 

“Gold  Size”  Japan  49 

Grain  Alcohol  as  a Solvent  57 

Graphite  (Black  Lead)  91 

Graphite,  Retarding  Effect  on  Drying  of  Oil 79 

Gray,  Charcoal  107 

Gray  Shade  of  Black  Lead  92 

Gray,  Mineral  142 

Green,  Alizarin  87 

Green,  Chrome  109 

Green,  Cobalt  113 

Green,  French  Veronese  122 

Green,  Malachite  139 

Green,  Mountain  139 

Green,  Prussian  153 

Green  Pigments  Used  by  the  Ancients  23,  26 

Green  Earth,  Possibly  the  Green  Used  by  Paul  Veronese.  123 

Green  Lake  127 

Guignet  Green  123 

Guignet,  Production  of  Artif.  Ultramarine  Blue  by 164 

Gum  Damar,  Effect  of  Light  and  Age  on 35 

Gypsum,  Found  in  Venetian  Red  168 

Gypsum,  Used  on  Gesso  Paintings 22 

Hairline  Cracks  42 

Plals,  Franz,  Use  of  Madder  Lake  by 85,  156 


[198] 


Permanent  Painting 


Hard-Drying,  Semi-Elastic  Paint  for  Backing  Canvas 50 

Hard-Drying  Colors,  Effect  of  Application  of, — Over 

Graphite  92 

Harrison  Red  128 

Helio  Fast  Red  128 

History  of  Painting  9 

Honey,  Its  Utilization  as  a Paint  Medium  10 

Hookers  Green  129 

Humidity,  Effect  of,  on  Paintings 54 

Hydrated  Oxide  of  Cooper  (Blue  Verditer)  93 

Hydrate  of  Alumina  88 

Hypernic  Lake  (Purple  Lake)  I5i4 

Hypernic  Wood,  Pigment  Made  from  169 

Imitation  of  Bistre  91 

Imitation  of  Natural  Sepia  159 

Imitation  of  the  Yellowing  of  Age  72 

Impressionism,  The  School  of 64 

Indian  Blue  129 

Indian  Lake  130 

Indian  Purple  130 

Indian  Red  131 

Indian  Red,  Dark  (Mars  Violet)  141 

Indian  Yellow  133 

Indican  23,  24 

Indigo  Used  by  the  Ancients  23,  24 

Indigo  133 

Influence  of  Moisture  on  Canvas  41 

Italian  Pink  134 

Italian  Pink  (Brown  Pink)  97 

Ivory  Black  134 

Ivory  Black,  In  Mono  Chrome  Tints  143 

Ivory  Soap  Used  in  Cleaning  Old  Paintings 59 

Jaqueminot  Madder  135 

Jan  Steen;  Method  of  Glazing  Flesh  Tints  by 86 

Japan  Varnish  Used  for  Priming 49 

Jaune  Brilliant  134 

Kauri  Gum  Varnish  71,  73 

King’s  Yellow  135 

Koettig,  Production  of  Ultramarine  Blue  by 164 

Krems  White  116 

Lake,  Brown  96 

Lake,  Carmine  105 


[ 199  1 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Lake,  Carnation  105 

Lake,  Indian  130 

Lake,  Madder  138 

Lake,  Mauve  142 

Lakes  Known  to  the  Ancients  27 

Lakes,  Effect  of  Boiled  Oil  on 79 

Lake  White  88 

Lampblack  136 

Lampblack  (Bistre)  91 

Lampblack,  Harmful  Effects  of  the  Slow  Drying  of.... 44,  46 

Lampblack  in  Composition  of  Brown  Madder 96 

Lampblack  in  Composition  of  Flexible  Priming 51 

Lampblack,  Slow  Drying  Action  of 79 

Lampblack,  Utilization  in  Mono-Chrome  Tints  143 

Lapis  Lazuli  (Natural  Ultramarine  Blue)  163 

Lapis  Lazuli  as  the  Coloring  Matter  of  Mineral  Gray 142 

Lapis  Lazuli  Used  by  the  Ancients 22,  26 

Lapis  Lazuli  versus  Ultramarine  Blue  t2i 

Lavender  Oil  69 

Lead  Poisoning  177 

Leitch’s  Blue  136 

Lemon  Chrome  Yellow  135 

Lemon  Yellow  137 

Leykauf,  Discovery  of  Purple  and  Red  Ultramarine  Blue 

(Artificial)  by  165 

Light,  Effect  of,  on  Asphaltum  and  Bitumen  36 

Light  Red  137 

Linoxyn  80 

Linseed  Oil  76 

Linseed  Oil,  Aging  of 78 

Linseed  Oil,  Bleached  76 

Linseed  Oil,  Drying  Action  of, — with  Zinc  White  75 

Linseed  Oil,  Earliest  Description  of ri 

Linseed  Oil,  Ltnafifected  by  Blanc  Fixe  115 

Linseed  Oil,  Quality  of.  Desirable  38 

List  of  Colors  81 

Litharge  in  Composition  of  Naples  Yellow  144 

Livering  of  Blue  Black  in  Oil  93 

Livering  of  Blue  Verditer  in  Oil  94 

Lithopone,  Action  on  Oil  of  37 

Lumiere  Process  of  Color  Photography 65 

Madder,  Brown  95 


[ 200] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Madder,  Carmine  138 

Madder  Colors,  Incompatibilities  of  86,  176 

Madder,  Crimson  117 

Madder,  Jacqueminot  135 

Madder  Lake  138 

Madder  Lakes  (Red  and  Alizarin  Colors)  85 

Madder  Lake,  Action  of  Driers  on  75 

Madder  Lake,  Action  of  Hydrated  Iron  Oxide  on 86,  176 

Madder  Lake,  Effect  of  Raw  Mineral  Pigments  on 86 

Madder  Lake  Used  as  a Glaze  86 

Madder  Lake  Glaze,  Care  Required  in  Cleaning  61 

Madder  Lake  in  Composition  of  Brown  Lake  96 

Madder  Lake  in  Composition  of  Permanent  Violet  149 

Madder  Lake  in  the  Composition  of  Vermilion  Substitute.  162 

Madder  Lake  in  the  Composition  of  Warm  Sepia 170 

Madder,  Orient  148 

Madder,  Pink  150 

Madder,  Purple  I54 

Madder,  Rembrandt’s  and  Ruben’s  156 

Madder,  Rose  I57 

Madder,  Scarlet  138 

Madder,  Vandyke  167 

Magenta  I39 

Malachite  Green  139 

Mars  Brown  140 

Mars  Colors  140 

Mars  Orange  140 

Mars  Red  141 

Mars  Violet  141 

Mars  Yellow  141 

Masters’  Secret,  Search  for  28 

Mastic  Varnish  72 

Mauve  142 

Mechanical  Bond  Between  Paint  Coatings  41 

Media  Used  by  Ancient  Painters  10 

Mastic,  Use  of, — by  Flemish  Artists  39 

Megilp,  Copal  74.  H5 

Megilp  as  a Cause  of  Cracking  46 

Mercury  Vermilion  178 

Metal  as  a Foundation  48 

Metallic  Soaps  as  Driers  116 

Methyl  Alcohol  as  a Solvent  57 


[201] 


Permanent  Painting 


Methyl  Alcohol,  Utility  for  Cleaning  Decomposed  Bitu- 
men Glaze  90 

Milori  Blue  (Chinese  Blue)  107 

Milori  Blue,  Reaction  of,  with  Other  Pigments 152 

Mineral  Gray  142 

Minium  143 

Minium,  Drying  Qualities  of 46 

Mixing  Pigments,  Principles  of 64 

Mixing  of  Pigments;  Practiced  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. . .189 

Moisture,  Protection  of  Wood  Panels  Against 54 

Mono-Chrome  Tints  143 

Mountain  Green  139 

Mummy  144 

Myrtle  Leaves,  Green  Lake  Made  from 157 

Naples  Yellow  144 

Naples  Yellow,  Reddish  145 

Naphtha  69 

Naphtha  Used  for  Cleaning  Pictures  59 

Natural  Ultramarine  Blue  131 

Neutral  Orange 145 

Neutral  Tint  14S 

New  Blue  146 

Non-Permanent  Colors  179 

Nottingham  White  146 

Ochre,  Brown  96 

Ochre,  Brown  Roman  99 

Ochre,  Extract  of  (Mars  Yellow)  141 

Ochre,  Oxford  148 

Ochre,  Roman  156 

Ochre,  Transparent  Gold  162 

Ochre,  Yellow  171 

Oil  Copal  Varnishes  

Oil  of  Bergamot  73 

Oil  of  Lavender  73 

Oil  Paintings,  Photo-Chemical  Deterioration  of 32 

Oils,  Acid  in  102 

Olive  Green  146 

Olive  Lake  147 

Olive  Madder  I47 

Orange  Chrome  Yellow  (Scarlet  Red)  158 

Orange  Chrome  Yellow  as  Component  of  Bronze  Green...  95 
Orange  Madder  I47 


[202  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Orange  Mineral  (Minium)  143 

Orange  Mineral  (as  Scarlet  Red) 158 

Orange  Vermilion  (Chinese  Vermilion)  108 

Orange  Vermilion,  Field’s  120 

Orient  Madder  148 

Orpiment  148 

Orpiment  (King’s  Yellow)  135 

Oxford  Ochre  148 

Oxford  Ochre  (Brown  Ochre)  97 

Oxide  of  Chromium  (Viridian)  170 

Oxide  of  Chromium  (French  Veronese  Green)  122 

Oxide  of  Cobalt  (Cobalt  Blue)  ill 

Oxide  of  Cobalt  as  Coloring  Matter  of  Smalt 160 

Oxide  of  Iron  (Indian  Red)  131 

Oxide  of  Iron  (Venetian  Red)  167 

Oxide  of  Lead  (Minium)  143 

Oxide  of  Lead  (Tours  Orange  Mineral)  161 

Oxide  of  Manganese,  Occurrence  in  Number  of 100 

Painters’  Oil  19 

Painting,  History  of  9 

Paintings  Yellow  with  Age,  Renovation  of 61 

Paintings,  Photo-Chemical  Deterioration  of 32 

Paint  Removers  58 

Panels,  Protection  of  Wood 43 

Paris  Blue  152 

Paris  Green  (Emerald  Green)  118 

Payne’s  Gray  149 

Permanent  Colors,  List  of  175 

Permanent  Glaze,  Imitation  of  Asphaltum  90 

Permanent  Green  (See  Veridian) 

Permanent  Violet  149 

Permanent  White  Pigments  38 

Permanent  White  (Zinc  White)  172 

Permanent  Yellow  150 

Peroxide  of  Hydrogen  for  Restoring  Discolored  Lead  Pig- 
ments   61 

Persian  Berry,  Lake  Made  from  97 

Petroleum  Spirits  69 

Phoenecians,  Pigments  Used  by  tbe  25 

Phosphate  of  Cobalt  (Cobalt  Violet)  113 

Phosphate  of  Manganese  (Perm.  Violet)  149 

Photo-Chemical  Deterioration  of  Oil  Paintings ,32 


[ 203  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Picture  Varnishes  71 

Pigments  Absorbed  by  the  Skin  178 

Pigments  Afifected  by  Light  179 

Pigments  Dangerous  to  Health  177 

Pigments  which  are  Absolutely  Permanent  When  Used 
Alone,  but  Not  Permanent  When  Mixed  With  Other 

Colors  186 

Pigments  which  Dry  Slowly  and  Irregularly  187 

Pink,  Brown  97 

Pink,  Dutch  (See  Brown  Pink) 

Pink,  Italian  13.4. 

Pink  Madder  150 

Plaster  of  Paris;  Use  in  Gesso  Painting  9,  26 

Poisonous  Pigments  as  a Medium  170 

Poppy  Oil  76 

Powder  Blue  112 

Prevention  of  Cracking  43,  50 

Primary  Colors  65 

Primary  Color  Sensations  65 

Primary  Pigments  64 

Priming,  Coatings  for 50,  51 

Primrose  Aurelian  (See  Aurelian) 

Primrose  Yellow  151 

Progressive  Drying  73 

Protection  of  Canvas  183 

Prussian  Blue  151 

Prussian  Blue  (Chinese  Blue)  107 

Prussian  Blue  as  Constituent  of  Antwerp  Blue  88 

Prussian  Blue,  Permanency  of i8r 

Prussian  Blue, — Component  of  Leitch’s  Blue  137 

Prussian  Brown  153 

Prussian  Green  153 

Pure  Scarlet  (See  Scarlet) 

Purple  Lake  I54 

Purple  Madder  154 

Purple  Ultramarine  165 

Purple,  Indian  130 

Quercitron  Lake  (Brown  Pink)  97 

Quicksilver  Vermilion,  Use  of, — In  Clearing  Shellac  Var- 
nishes   72 

Raw  Sienna  I54 

Raw  Umber  I55 


[204  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Red  Alizarin  Colors  85 

Red  Lead  (See  Minium) 

Red  Lead  (Scarlet  Red)  158 

Red  Lead,  Bleaching  of  181 

Refined  Linseed  Oil  76 

Red  Oxides  Used  by  the  Ancients  23,  26 

Red,  Chrome  109 

Red,  Indian  131 

Red,  Light  137 

Red,  Madder  (See  Madder  Lake) 

Red,  Mars  141 

Red,  Venetian  167 

Red,  Ultramarine,  Discovery  of, — ^by  Leykauf 165 

Rembrandt,  Colors  Used  by  28 

Rembrandt,  Treatment  of  Flesh  Tints  by 86 

Rembrandt's  Madder  ^.156 

Remedies  for  Bracking  of  Paintings  40 

Renovation  of  Paintings  56 

Renovation  of  Paintings  Yellow  with  Age  61 

Resin  Color  (Gamboge)  125 

Resin,  Fossil:  Color  and  Utilization  of 36 

Reynolds  (Sir  Joshua),  and  Secret  of  the  Old  Masters.  28 

Reynolds  (Sir  Joshua),  Failure  of  the  Paintings  of 188 

Roman  Ochre  156 

Roman  Ochre,  Cool  157 

Roman  Sepia  (See  Sepia) 

Rose  Doree  157 

Rose  Lake  157 

Rose  Madder  (See  Madder  Lake) 

Rough  Stuff  for  Surfacing  49 

Royal  Blue  (Cobalt  Blue)  112 

Rubens,  Colors  Used  by  28 

Rubens  Madder  156 

Rubia  Tinctorium  (See  Red  Alizarin  Colors) 

Russ  (Lampblack),  Earliest  24 

Rye-Bread  Ball  for  Cleaning  60 

Sandarac,  Earliest  Use  of  13,  14 

Sandarac  Varnish  71 

Sap  Green  157 

Scarlet  Lake  I59 

Scarlet  Madder  (See  Madder  Lake) 

Scarlet  Vermilion  (See  Orange  Vermilion) 


[ 205  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

School  White  (See  Flake  White) 

School  of  Impressionism  64 

Secret  of  the  Masters’,  Search  for  28 

Sepia  159 

Sepia,  Warm  170 

Shellac  Varnish  71,  72 

Sienna,  Burnt  99 

Sienna,  Extract  of  (See  Mars  Orange) 

Sienna,  Extract  of  Raw  (See  Mars  Yellow) 

Sienna,  Raw  154 

Sienna,  Effect  of  Acid  Gases  on 182 

Silica  (Silex)  in  Ultramarine  Blue  164,  165 

Silver  White  160 

Sinopia  Used  by  the  Ancients  23,  25 

Sinopia  28 

Sky  Blue  160 

Slow  Drying  Colors  187 

Smalt  ..160 

Soap  for  Cleaning  Paintings  56 

Solvents  for  Removing  Old  Varnish  57 

Spirits  of  Turpentine  (See  Turpentine) 

Spirit  Varnish  71 

Steel  Blue  (See  Chinese  Blue  and  Prussian  Blue) 

Sulphate  of  Barium  (See  Constant  White) 

Sulphide  of  Arsenic  ( See  King’s  Yellow) 

Sulphide  of  Cadmium  (See  Cadmium  Yellow) 

Sulphide  of  Mercury  (See  Chinese  Vermilion) 

Sulphur  Dioxide  in  Air  180 

Sulphur  Fumes,  Discoloration  Caused  by, — and  its  Removal  61 

Sunlight,  Drying  Effects  of 74 

Sunlight,  Bleaching  Effects  of 61 

Synopia  (See  Sinopia) 

Sizing  Coats  for  Canvas  53 

Tempera  Painting,  Mediums  Used  for  9 

Tempera  Paintings,  Cleaning  of  56 

Terpinol-  Solvent  57 

Terre  Verte  161 

Terre  Verte  (Veronese  Green)  123 

Terre  Rose  161 

Tints,  Monochrome  I43 

“Tooth”  Desirable  in  Ground  Coats  H7i  i^4 

Tours  Orange  Mineral  161 


[206] 


Permanent  Painting 


Tours  Red  

Transparent  Gold  Ochre  

Turpentine  

Turpentine,  Cleaning  Pictures  with  

Turpentine  as  Varnish  Remover  

Turpentine,  its  Utility  in  Renovating  Paintings 

Tuscan  Red  

Ultramarine  Ash  

Ultramarine  Blue  

Ultramarine  Blue,  Action  with  Other  Pigments 

Ultramarine  Blue,  Effect  of  Acids  on 

Ultramarine  Blue,  Effect  of, — on  White  Lead  . . 

Ultramarine  Blue,  Composition  of  

Ultramarine  Blue  with  Prussian  Blue  

Ultramarine  Blue,  Silica  Content  of 

Ultramarine  Blue,  Brilliant  

Ultramarine  Blue,  French  

Ultramarine,  Genuine  (See  Ultramarine  Blue) 

Ultramarine,  Purple  

Umber,  Burnt  

Umber,  Raw  

Unequal  Expansion  of  Paint  Films  

Vandyke  Brown  

Vandyke  Brown  (Cappah  Brown)  

Vandyke  Brown  (Cologne  Earth)  

Vandyke  Madder  

Van  Eycks,  Medium  Used  by  the  

Van  Eyck,  Hubert  and  Jan,  Painting  in  Oil  by., 

Varnish,  Amber  

Varnish  Known  to  the  Ancients  

Varnish  as  a Protective  Coating  

Varnish,  Disintegrated,  Removal  of  ...■ 

Venetian  Red  

Verdigris  

Vermilion,  Chinese  

Vermilion,  Extract  of  

Vermilion,  Field’s  Orange  

Vermilion  Substitutes  

Verona  Brown  

Veronese  Green  

Veronese,  Paul,  Green  Used  by 

Verte  de  Grece  


Page 

. . .161 
. . . 162 
...  69 
...  56 

...58 

61,  62 

. . . 162 
. . .166 
. . . 163 
. . .112 
. . . 121 
• ■•79 

• • • 165 


164,  i6s 

94 

122 

165 

100 

155 

50 

166 

103 

114 

167 

39 

. . . II,  21 
73 

• .13,  16 

62 

58 

167 

168 

108 

119 

120 

162 

169 

169 

123 

23 


[ 207  ] 


Permanent  Painting 


Page 

Vibert  ^ 

Vibert,  Medium  Used  by 69 

Vienna  Blue  (See  Cobalt  Blue) 

Vine  Black  (See  Blue  Black) 

Violet  Carmine  169 

Violet,  Permanent  149 

Violet  Ultramarine  150 

Viridian  170 

Volatile  Solvents  69 

Walnut  Oil  76 

Walnut  Oil,  Early  Knowledge  of  ii 

Warm  Sepia  170 

Warping  of  Wooden  Panels  54 

Water  in  Tube  Colors  184 

White  Pigments  Used  by  the  Ancients  26 

White  Lead  (Cremnitz  White)  116 

White  Lead  (Flake  White)  120 

White  Lead  (Foundation  White  ) 124 

White  Lead,  Ancient  Use  of  15,  22 

Wood  Alcohol  for  Cleaning  Paintings  56,  58 

Wood  as  Foundation  48 

Wood  Lake  (Purple  Lake)  154 

Wood  Panels,  Warping  of  54 

Wool  as  Foundation  182 

Xantophyll  125 

Yellow,  Alizarin  87 

Yellow,  Cadmium  loi 

Yellow,  Citron  no 

Yellow,  King’s  135 

Yellow  Lake  171 

Yellow,  Lemon  137 

Yellow  Ochre  171 

Yellowy  Permanent  150 

Yellow,  Primrose  151 

Yellow  Sienna  (See  Raw  Sienna) 

Yolk  of  Egg  Used  as  a Medium  14 

Zinc  (Metal  Sheet)  as  Foundation  43 

Zinc  Oxide  (Chinese  White)  108 

Zinc  White  172 

Zinc  White,  Drying  of, — in  Oil  75 

Zinc  Yellow  (See  Primrose  Yellow) 

Zinnobar  Green  173 


[ 208  ] 


STANDARD  WORKS 

ON 

j&aintB:,  €>il0.  Colors,  anl) 
Parntsljes 


ANDES,  L.  E.  Drying  Oils,  Boiled  Oil,  and  Solid  and  Liquid 

Driers:  A practical  work  for  manufacturers  of  Oils,  Var- 
nishes, Printing  Inks,  Oil-cloth  and  Linoleum,  Oil-cakes, 
Paints,  etc.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  Is-oo. 

Iron  Corrosion,  Anti-fouling  and  Anti-corrosive  Paints. 

Translated  from  the  German  by  Charles  Salter.  Illus- 
trated with  engravings  and  half-tone  cuts.  8vo.,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $4.00. 

Oil  Colors  and  Printing  Inks:  A practical  hand-book 

treating  of  Linseed  Oil,  Boiled  Oil,  Paints,  Artists’  Colors, 
Lampblack,  Printers’  Ink  (Black  and  Colored).  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson, 
B.  Sc.  With  56  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  215 
pp net,  $2.50. 

BANNON,  JOHN.  Linseed  Oil  Manufacture  and  Treatment. 
Varnish  Manufacture.  Superior,  Medium,  and  Cheap 
Grades.  A Practical  Manual.  i2mo,  cloth  . . .net,  $5.00. 

BERSCH,  JOSEF.  The  Manufacture  of  Mineral  and  Lake 

Pigments.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Manufacture 
of  ail  Artificial,  Artists’  and  Painters’  Colors,  Enamel, 
Soot,  and  Metallic  Pigments.  A text-book  for  Manu- 
facturers, Merchants,  Artists,  and  Painters.  Translated 
from  the  second  revised  edition  by  Arthur  C.  Wright, 
B.  Sc.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5.00. 

BITMfiAD,  RICHARD.  French  Polishing  and  Enameling: 
A practical  work  of  Instruction,  including  Recipes  for 
making  Polishes,  Varnishes,  Glaze-Lacquers,  Revivers,  etc. 
i2mo,  cloth nc',  $.60 


STANDARD  WORKS  ON 


BRAKNT,  WM.  T.  The  Painter,  Gilder,  and  Vamishers’ 
Companion.  Comprising  the  manufacture  and  test  of 
pigments,  the  art  of  painting,  graining,  marbling,  staining, 
sign  writing,  varnishing,  glass  staining,  and  gilding  on 
glass;  together  with  coach  painting  and  varnishing,  and 
the  principles  of  the  harmony  and  contrast  of  colors. 
Twenty-seventh  edition,  revised,  enlarged,  and  in  great  part 
rewritten.  i2mo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1.50 

Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Printing  Inks,  and  Sealing  Waxes; 

their  Raw  Materials  and  their  Manufacture,  to  which  is 
added  the  Art  of  Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  including 
the  preparation  of  Putties  and  Stains  for  Wood,  Ivory, 
Bone,  Horn,  and  Leather.  i2mo,  cloth,  with  39  illustra- 
tions  7iet,  $3.00 

BROWN,  WM.  N.  House  Decorating  and  Painting.  With 
numerous  illustrations.  i2mo,  cloth net,  $1.50 

Workshop  Wrinkles  for  Decorators,  Painters,  Paper- 

Hangers,  and  Others.  8vo,  cloth  net,  $1.00 

The  Art  of  Enameling  on  Metal.  With  figures  and 

illustrations.  i2mo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1.00 

CHURCH,  A.  H.  Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Painting.  Third 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3.00 

CLARK,  R.  INGAM.  A Few  Notes  on  Varnishes  and  Fossil 
Resins,  qto,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3.25 

COWELL,  W.  B.  Pure  Air,  Ozone,  and  V/ater:  a practical 
treatise  of  their  utilization  and  value  in  oil,  grease,  soap, 
paint,  glue,  and  other  industries.  With  tables  and  figures, 
i2mo,  cloth,  illustrated 7iet,  $2.00 

DENNING,  DAVID.  Polishes  and  Stains  for  Woods;  howto 
use  and  prepare  them.  Being  a complete  guide  to  polish- 
ing woodwork,  with  directions  for  staining,  and  full  infor- 
mation for  making  the  stains,  polishes,  etc.,  in  the  simplest 
and  most  satisfactory  manner.  i2mo,  paper ....  $.40 

DESAINT,  A.  Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix 
Them.  100  folding  plates.  Cloth tiet,  %io.oo 

ELLIS,  GEO.  H.  White  Paint  Analysis:  A Collection  of 
Notes  on  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  White  and  Tinted 
Paints,  with  detailed  and  practical  methods  given  for  the 
analysis  of  Mixed  Paints.  A useful  book  for  the  Chemist 
and  Paint  Manufacturer.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  net,  $1.50 

ENNIS,  WILLIAM  D.  Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils. 
An  industrial  manual.  88  illustrations,  8vo,  cloth.  330 
pp net,  $4*0^ 


PAINTS,  OILS,  VARNISHES 

FAIRIE,  JAMES,  F.G.S.  — Notes  on  Lead  Ores;  their  Dis- 
tribution and  Properties.  i2mo,  cloth net,  $i.oo 

FURNELL,  J.  Students’  Handbook  of  Paints,  Colors,  Oils, 

and  Varnishes.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  96  pp. . .net,  $1.00 

HALL,  C.  H.  Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles. 

Illustrated.  i2mo,  cloth,  133  pp net,  $2.00 

HATT,  J.  A.  H.  The  Colorist.  Designed  to  Correct  the 
commonly  held  theory  that  red,  yellow,  and  blue  are  the 
primary  colors,  and  to  supply  the  much-needed  easy 
method  of  determining  color  harmony;  together  with  a 
system  of  color  nomenclature  and  other  practical  infor- 
mation for  artists  and  workers  or  designers  in  colors. 
2 color  plates,  8vo,  cloth,  95  pp .net,  $1.50 

HERMANN,  F.  Painting  on  Glass  and  Porcelain  and 
Enamel  Painting.  On  the  basis  of  Personal  Practical 
Experience  of  the  Condition  of  the  Art  up  to  date.  Trans- 
lated by  Charles  Salter.  Second  greatly  enlarged  edition. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3.50 

HOFF,  J.  N.  Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas.  A 
hand-book  for  the  maker,  dealer,  and  user  of  paints  and 
varnishes.  Containing  over  600  recipes.  8vo,  cloth,  179 
pp Hd,  $1.50 

HURST,  GEORGE  H.  Painters’  Laboratory  Guide:  A 

Hand-book  on  Paints,  Colors,  and  Varnishes  for  Students. 
With  diagrams  and  figures.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  248 
pp net,  $i.7S 

Dictionary  of  Chemicals  and  Raw  Products  used  in  the 

Manufacture  of  Paints,  Colors,  Varnishes,  and  Allied 
Preparations.  8vo,  cloth net,  ^3.00 

Painters’  Colours  Oils,  and  Varnishes : A Practical  Man- 
ual. Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Profusely  illus- 
trated, with  copious  index.  8vo,  cloth  ?;c/,  $3.50 

Color:  A Hand-book  of  the  Theory  of  Color;  a practical 

work  for  the  Artist,  Art  Student,  Painter,  Dycr,^  and 
Calico  Printer,  and  others.  Illustrated  with  10  colored 
plates  and  72  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth net,  $2.50 

JAMESON,  LEWIS.  The  Manufacturers’  Practical  up-to- 
date  Recipe  Book.  Nearly  3,000  practical^  up-to-date 
recipes  for  manufacturing  all  kinds  and  qualities  of  colors, 
paints,  varnishes,  japans,  enamels,  oils,  greases,  lubri- 
cants, soaps,  etc.,  and  for  all  manufactures  connected 
with  the  allied  trades.  Buyers’  and  sellers’  simple  and 


STANDARD  WORKS  ON 


reliable  tests  for  materials,  adulterations,  etc.  8vo, 

cloth.  4 volumes,  each net,  $15.00 

Vols,  I.,  II.,  III.,  pertaining  to  Paints,  Oils,  etc.,  as  follows: 
Contents:  Vol.  I.,  569  pp.  Pigments  and  Dry  Colours, 
Paste  and  Mixed  Paints,  Paint  Oils,  Vehicles,  and  Medi- 
ums, Distempers,  and  Sundry  Paint  Materials.  — Vol.  II., 
4r2  pp.  Varnishes  and  Varnish  Derivatives,  Oils  and 
other  Varnish  Materials,  Oil  and  Spirit  Varnishes,  Print- 
ing and  Litho  Inks,  Enamels,  Anti-Foulings,  Gold  Paints, 
etc.  — Vol.  III.,  477  pp.  Oils,  Fats,  Tallows,  Waxes  and 
Greases  (Vegetable,  Animal,  and  Mineral),  for  Burning, 
Lubricating,  Leather  Dressing,  etc.,  and  for  all  purposes. 

JENNINGS,  A.  S.  Paint  and  Color  Mixing:  A Practical 
Hand-book  for  Painters,  Decorators,  and  all  who  have  to 
mix  colors.  Containing  seventy-two  samples  of  paint  of 
various  colors,  including  the  principal  graining  grounds 
and  upwards  of  four  hundred  different  color  mixtures, 
with  hints  on  color  and  paint  mixing  generally,  testing 


colors,  recipes  for  special  paints,  etc.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated, 
97  pp net,  $2.00 

Commercial  Paints  and  Painting.  8vo,  cloth  (Van  Nos- 
trand’s Westminster  Series) In  Press 


JENNISON,  FRANCIS  H.  The  Manufacture  of  Lake  Pig- 
ments, from  Artificial  Colours;  A useful  handbook  for 
colour  manufacturers,  dyers,  colour  chemists,  paint  manu- 
facturers, drysalters,  wall-paper  makers,  enamel  and  sur- 
face-paper makers.  With  fifteen  plates  illustrating  the 
various  methods  and  errors  that  arise  in  the  different  pro- 
cesses of  production.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated  . . .net,  $3.00 

JONES,  M.  W.  The  Testing  and  Valuation  of  Raw  Materials 
used  in  Paint  and  Color  Manufacture.  i2mo,  cloth 
net,  $2.00 

LAMBERT,  THOMAS.  Lead  and  its  Compounds.  With 

tables,  diagrams,  and  folding  plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated, 228  pp net,  $3.50 

LIVACHE,  ACH.  The  Manufacture  of  Varnishes  and  Kin- 
dred Industries.  Describing  the  Manufacture  and  Chem- 
ical and  Physical  Properties  of  Spirit  Varnishes;  and  Oil 
Varnishes;  Raw  Materials;  Resins;  Solvents  and  Color- 
ing Principles;  Drying  Oils,  their  Extraction,  Properties, 
and  Applications;  Oil  Refining  and  Boiling;  the  Manu- 
facture, Employment  and  Testing  of  Various  Varnishes. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  John  Geddes  McIntosh. 
Second  Edition  greatly  extended  and  adapted  to  English 


PAINTS,  OILS,  VARNISHES 

practice,  with  numerous  original  recipes,  by  the  translator. 
Vol.  I.  Oil  Crushing,  Refining,  and  Boiling;  the  Manu- 
facture of  Linoleum,  Printing  and  Lithographic  Inks,  and 
India  Rubber  Substitutes.  Illustrated,  8vo,  cloth,  150  pp. 

net,  $3.50 

Vol.  II.  Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making. 

Illustrated,  8vo,  cloth,  209  pp net,  $4.00 

(To  be  complete  in  three  volumes.) 

MUCKLEY,  W.  J.  A Hand-book  for  Painters  and  Art 
Students  on  the  Character,  Nature,  and  Use  of  Colors. 
Fourth  edition.  Svo,  cloth net,  $1.60 

Oilmen’s  Sundries,  and  how  to  Make  them:  Being  a collec- 
tion of  Practical  Recipes  for  Blacking,  Boot  Creams  and 
Polishes,  Harness  Oils,  Pastes  and  Polishes,  Leather 
Dressing  and  Renovators,  Starch  Glazes,  Blues,  Stove 
Pastes,  Starch  Tints,  Straw-Hat  Polishes,  Metal  and 
Plate  Polishes,  Furniture  Creams,  Wood  Fillers,  Floor 

Waxes  and  Finishes,  Inks,  Pastes,  Glues,  and  Gums, 
Blackboard  Slating,  Disinfectants,  Cloudy  Y\mmonia, 
Insecticides,  Hearth-stone  Squares,  etc.  i2mo,  cloth 

net,  $2.00 

PARRY,  E.  J.,  and  COSTE,  J.  H.  Chemistry  of  Pigments. 

With  tables  and  figures.  Svo,  cloth,  illustrated,  280  pp. 
net,  $4.50 

PATERSON,  DAVID.  The  Science  of  Colour  Mixing:  A 
manual  intended  for  the  use  of  Dyers,  Calico  Printers, 
and  Colour  Chemists.  With  figures,  tables,  and  coloured 
plates.  Svo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3.00 

PETIT,  G.  The  Manufacture  and  Comparative  Merits  of 
White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints.  Translated  from  the 
French  by  Donald  Grant.  i2mo,  cloth,  95  pp.  . .net,  $1.50 

PULSIFER,  W.  H.  Notes  for  a History  of  Lead,  and  an 
Inquiry  into  the  Development  of  the  Manufacture  of 
White  Lead  and  Lead  Oxides.  Svo,  cloth net,  $4.00 

RANAUD,  PAUL.  Enamels  and  Enamelling:  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  preparation  and  application  of  all  kinds  of 
enamels  for  technical  and  artistic  purposes.  For  enamel 
makers,  workers  in  gold  and  silver,  and  manufacturers  of 
objects  of  art.  Third  German  edition,  translated  by 
Charles  Salter.  With  figures,  diagrams,  and  tables. 
Svo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  I4.00 

Recipes  for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,  Oil,  Soap,  and  Dry- 
saltery Trade.  Compiled  by  an  Analytical  C hemist. 
8vo,  347  pp.,  cloth net,  $3.50 


STANDARD  WORKS 


RIFFAULT:  A Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Colors  for  Painting.  By  MM.  Rifiault,  Vergnaud,  and 
Toussaint.  Revised  by  M.  F.  Malepeyre,  and  translated 
from  the  French  by  A.  A.  Fesquet.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $5.00 

SCHWEIZER,  V.  Distillation  of  Resins,  Resinate  Lakes, 
and  Pigments;  Carbon  Pigments  and  Pigments  for  Type- 
writing Machines,  Manifolders,  etc.  A description  of 
the  proper  methods  of  distilling  resin-oils,  the  manufac- 
ture of  resinates,  resin-varnishes,  resin-pigments,  and 
enamel  paints,  the  preparation  of  all  kinds  of  carbon  pig- 
ments, and  printers’  ink,  lithographic  inks  and  chalks,  and 
also  inks  for  typewriters,  manifolders,  and  rubber  stamps. 
With  tables  and  68  figures  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 

illustrated.  183  pp wei,  $3.50 

SMITH,  J.  C.  Manufacture  of  Paint.  A Practical  Hand- 
book for  Paint  Manufacturers,  Merchants,  and  Painters. 
With  60  illus.  and  one  large  diagram,  8vo,  cloth,  net,  $3.00 
STANDAGE,  H.  C.  The  Artists’  Manual  of  Pigments. 
Showing  their  Composition,  Conditions  of  Permanency, 
Non-Permanency,  and  Adulterations;  effects  in  Combi- 
nation with  each  other  and  with  vehicles;  and  the  most 
Reliable  Tests  of  Purity.  Third  edition.  i2mo,  cloth. 

net,  $1.00 

SUFFLING,  E.  R.  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting. 
Prefaced  with  a Review  of  Ancient  Glass.  With  engra- 
vings and  colored  plates.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3.50 

TERRY,  G.  Pigments,  Paints,  and  Painting.  A Practical 
Book  for  Practical  Men.  i2mo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $3.00 

TOCH,  M.  Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints. 

58  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth,  166  pp  net,  $3.00 

Materials  for  Permanent  Painting;  a manual  for 

manufacturers,  art  dealers,  artists,  and  collectors. 
With  full  page  illustrations.  i2mo,  cloth,  208 

pages net,  $2.00 

WRIGHT,  A.  C.  Simple  Methods  for  Testing  Painters’ 
Materials.  8vo,  cloth,  ijo  pp net,  $2.50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY, 

Publishers  and  Booksellers, 

23  MURRAY  & 27  WARREN  STS.,  NEW  YORK. 

SEND  FOR  OUR  COMPLETE  CATALOGS. 


RECENTLY  PUBL8SHED 


8vo,  Cloth,  166  pp.,  Illustrated.  Price,  $3.00  Net. 

THE 

Chemistry-^Technoloqy 

OF 

MIXED  PAINTS 

BY 

Maximilian  Toch 

With  Photo-micrographs  and  Engravings. 


CONTEN^. 

Preface.  Introduction.  Mixed  Paints.  The  Manufacture  of 
Mixed  Paints.  The  White  Pigments.  White  Lead.  Zinc  Oxide. 
Lithopone.  Sulphate  of  Lead.  Sublimed  White  Lead.  The  Oxides 
of  Lead.  Red  Lead.  Orange  Mineral.  Litharge  The  Inert  Fil- 
lers and  Extenders.  Silica.  Infusorial  Earth — Silex.  Barytes. 
Barium  Sulphate — Blanc  Fixe.  Gypsum — Calcium  Carbonates. 

China  Clay — Kaolin.  The  Red  Pigments.  Venetian  Reds.  Indian 
Red.  Permanent  Vermillion.  Burnt  Ochre. — American  Sienna. 
The  Black  Pigments.  Coal.  Charcoal.  Graphite.  Mineral  Black. 
Carnon  Black.  Lamp  Black.  Bone  Black.  Chrome  Yellow. 

Chrome  Green.  Chromium  Oxide.  Prussian  Blue.  Ultramarine 
and  Cobalt  Blue.  Linseed  Oil  China  Wood  Oil.  Dryers.  Ben- 
zine. Benzol.  Turpentine.  Fish  Oil.  Combining  Mediums.  Water 
in  the  Composition  of  Mixed  Paints.  Floor  Paints.  Cement  Paint. 
Damp  Resisting  Paints.  The  Analysis  of  Paints.  The  Analysis, 
of  White  Paints.  The  Analysis  of  Oils  in  Paints.  The  Influence 
of  Paint  on  Malted  Liquors.  The  Microscope.  The  Spectroscope. 
Index. 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY, 

Publishers  and  Booksellers, 

23  Murray  and  27  Warren  Streets, 


XEW  YORK. 


RECENTLY  PUBLISHED. 


I2M0.  CLOTH.  115  Pages.  Price  $2.00  Net 


THE  CHEMISTRY 

OF 

Paint  and  Paint  Vehicles. 

BY  CLARE  H.  HALL,  B.  S. 


EXTRACT  FROM  PREFACE. 

**In  writing  this  book,  the  author  has  attempted  to  sift  from  the  great  mass 
of  analytical  chemistry,  those  methods  which  apply  particularly  to  the  analysis  of 
paints,  at  the  same  time  calling  attention  to  the  most  important  physical 
characteristics  of  the  raw  materials. 

No  chemist  can  be  proficient  in  the  analysis  of  paints,  without  a thorough 
knowledge  of  all  the  materials  with  which  he  comes  in  contact. 

This  book,  being  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a chemist,  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  paints  and  colors.  Chapter  IV  has  been  included  in  an  attempt  to 
bridge  the  space  between  the  laboratory  and  the  factory.  It  is  here  that  so  often 
the  results  of  previous  analysis  are  rendered  worthless  by  being  placed  in  the 
hands  of  one  who  does  not  understand  their  interpretation  nor  the  composition  of 
the  raw  materials  which  he  is  using.  Over  this  work  the  chemist  should  ha«*» 
final  supervision.” 

CONTENTS. 

Chap.  I.  The  Determination  of  the  Elementary  Constituents 
of  Paints. 

II.  Raw  Materials,  Properties,  Tests  and  Methods  of 
Analysis. 

III.  The  Analysis  of  Dry  Colors,  Pastes  and  Liquid 

Paints. 

IV.  Matching  of  Samples. 

V.  Paint  Vehicles. 

Appendix 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY, 

Publishers  and  Booksellers. 

23  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STREETS.  NEW  YORIC 


% % 


U 


/7  ^ 

/ 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY  CONS 

ND  1510  T633  1911  BKS 

c.  1 Toch.  Maximilian,  18 

Materials  for  permanent  painting:  a manu 


3 3125  00365  2092 


